2.1.2 Different geographical information systems
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are powerful tools that enable users to analyze, interpret, and visualize spatial data. There are various GIS software and platforms available, each with its own features and capabilities (Nurdin, Pettalongi, & Mangasing, 2021), Geographic Information Systems (GIS) play a crucial role in the optimization of highway planning and maintenance strategies. GIS enables spatial analysis of highway networks, considering factors such as traffic patterns, land use, and environmental constraints. This analysis helps in identifying optimal locations for new highways, intersections, or maintenance facilities (Singh, & Katiyar, 2021), GIS can be used for site selection for new highway construction or maintenance facilities. It takes into account various criteria such as accessibility, environmental impact, and proximity to existing infrastructure (Teixeira, 2021).
GIS integrates various data sources, including traffic data, population density, and environmental data. By combining these datasets, planners can make informed decisions about where to invest in highway improvements or maintenance. GIS helps optimize the layout of highway networks. It considers factors like traffic flow, minimizing congestion, and ensuring efficient connectivity. Optimization algorithms can be applied to find the most cost-effective and time-efficient highway network configurations (Carniel, & Schneider, 2021).
GIS is used for managing and maintaining a database of highway assets, such as bridges, pavements, and signs. This helps in planning maintenance activities, scheduling repairs, and allocating resources efficiently GIS allows for the development of predictive models for highway maintenance needs. By analyzing historical data on road conditions, traffic patterns, and weather, planners can anticipate maintenance requirements and plan accordingly (Jebur, 2021).
GIS is employed to assess and manage risks associated with highways, such as landslide-prone areas, flood zones, or earthquake risks. This information is critical for planning and prioritizing maintenance activities (Psomiadis, et al., 2020), GIS helps in conducting cost-benefit analyses for different highway planning and maintenance strategies. It allows decision-makers to evaluate the economic impact of different options and choose the most cost-effective solutions (Mekonnen et al., 2022).
According to Lagmay et al., (2017), GIS is essential for emergency response planning in the event of accidents, natural disasters, or other disruptions to the highway system. It helps identify alternative routes and facilitates quick decision-making during crises, can be used to visualize proposed highway projects and their potential impact on communities. This aids in public engagement and consultation, allowing stakeholders to provide feedback and helping planners make decisions that consider the needs and concerns of the community (Neuhäuser et al., 2017).
Here are some different GIS systems:
Esri’s ArcGIS is one of the most widely used GIS platforms. It offers a comprehensive suite of tools for mapping, spatial analysis, and data management. ArcGIS includes desktop, online, and mobile applications, making it suitable for a wide range of users and industries. It provides a range of tools and capabilities for creating, managing, analyzing, and visualizing spatial data. Here are some key aspects of Esri’s ArcGIS and its use in GIS, ArcGIS allows users to create and manage spatial data in various formats, including vector and raster data. It supports geodatabases for storing and organizing geographic information (Jaiswal, & van Westen, 2022).
ArcGIS (Esri) also enhance Mapping and Visualization since Users can create high-quality maps and visualizations using ArcGIS. It provides a wide range of symbology, labeling, and cartographic tools to enhance the representation of spatial data. ArcGIS offers a rich set of spatial analysis tools for conducting various analyses such as overlay analysis, proximity analysis, surface analysis, and statistical analysis. These tools enable users to derive meaningful insights from spatial data (Lagmay et al., 2017).
Geoprocessing tools in ArcGIS allow users to perform spatial analysis, data conversion, and other operations on geographic data. It includes a variety of tools for buffer analysis, clip and merge operations, and more. ArcGIS supports network analysis tools that are particularly useful in transportation planning, including route optimization, service area analysis, and network connectivity analysis (Psomiadis et al., 2020).
ArcGIS includes capabilities for 3D GIS, allowing users to create, visualize, and analyze three-dimensional spatial data. This is especially valuable in urban planning, infrastructure design, and environmental modeling. ArcGIS Online, a component of Esri’s platform, enables users to share and access GIS data and maps over the web. It supports collaboration and facilitates the creation of interactive web maps and applications (Yamusa, Ismail, & Tella, 2022).
ArcGIS provides tools for field data collection through mobile devices. Fieldworkers can use ArcGIS mobile apps to collect and update spatial data in real-time, improving data accuracy and efficiency. Esri’s ArcGIS supports the creation of story maps, which are interactive and multimedia-rich presentations that combine maps with narrative text, images, and other media. This feature is often used for communicating spatial information in a compelling way (Pantha, Yatabe, & Bhandary, 2018).
Spatial Database Connectivity, ArcGIS can connect to various spatial databases, allowing users to integrate GIS with other enterprise systems and databases. This enhances the interoperability of GIS with other information systems. ArcGIS offers specialized extensions for specific purposes, such as spatial analyst, 3D analyst, and network analyst. These extensions provide additional tools and capabilities to address specific spatial analysis needs (Kong et al., 2023).
QGIS is an open-source GIS software that provides similar functionality to ArcGIS. It is free to use and has a large user community. QGIS supports a wide range of data formats and has a variety of plugins and extensions, allowing users to customize their GIS workflows (Duarte, & Teodoro, 2021), Geographic Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS GIS) is another open-source GIS software. It is a powerful tool for geospatial data analysis and modeling. GRASS GIS has been used in various scientific research projects and is known for its advanced spatial analysis capabilities (Kanwar, Rai, & Kuniyal, 2022).
Google Earth Engine is a cloud-based platform that allows users to analyze and visualize large-scale geospatial datasets. It is particularly useful for tasks such as remote sensing analysis, deforestation monitoring, and climate change studies. Google Earth Engine is free for non-commercial use. MapInfo is a desktop GIS software developed by Pitney Bowes. It is known for its user-friendly interface and is often used for mapping and spatial analysis in business and government applications (Löwe et al., 2022).
2.1.2. Planning and maintenance
2.1.2.1. Road Planning
Planning is a complex and multidimensional process which requires re-thinking of traditional approaches in transportation planning and maintenance (Dragićević and Balram 2004). Planning involves procedures to identify future transportation needs and recommending solutions in the long- to midterm timeframes. This includes developing transportation strategies which consider transportation investments and addresses strategic issues at the local, state and network level (Systematics 2006). State Highway Agencies (SHAs) need to make the most efficient choices in the planning and allocation of inadequate highway funds to keep highway infrastructure physically robust and functionally efficient (Podgorski and Kockelman 2006). The Texas transportation system is challenged by traffic congestion and structural deterioration in addition to increased maintenance expenses for the aged network (Podgorski and Kockelman 2006). Highway funding shortages, particularly in areas like Texas where they make up a significant portion of financing sources, are made worse by insufficient state “gas tax” income. Consequently, highway planning and projects prioritization have become even more laborious for decision-makers. The following challenges identified in these research studies (Caldas et al. 2011; Podgorski and Kockelman 2006; Waddell 2011) further highlight additional issues that highway planners generally need to contend with.
The road planning phase is the time to evaluate environmental and economic tradeoffs and should set the stage for the remainder of the road development process. The process further entails; Road design. Where the detailed list of considerations to be used in negotiating a set of road standards. These include resource management objectives, environmental constraints, safety, physical environmental factors (such as topography, climate, and soils), traffic requirements, and traffic service levels (Abed khan 2013). Furthermore, road design elements are identified so as to keep to the standards of length, width and depth.
Route Planning
Planning with respect to road construction takes into account present and future uses of the transportation system to assure maximum service with a minimum of financial and environmental cost. The main objective of this initial phase of road development is to establish specific goals and prescriptions for road network development along with the more general location needs. These goals must result from a coordinated effort between the road engineer and the land manager, forester, geologist, soil scientist, hydrologist, biologist and others who would have knowledge or recommendations regarding alternatives or solutions to specific problems(Amos N. 2019). The pattern of the road network will govern the total area disturbed by road construction. The road pattern which will give the least density of roads per unit area while maintaining minimum hauling distance is the ideal to be sought. Keeping the density of roads to an economical minimum has initial cost advantages and future advantages in road maintenance costs and the acreage of land taken out of production (Amos N. 2019).
The route planning phase is the time to evaluate environmental and economic tradeoffs and should set the stage for the remainder of the road development process. Although inclusion of design criteria for sediment control may increase initial capital outlay, it does not necessarily increase total annual cost over the life of the road which might come from reductions in annual maintenance, reconstruction, and repair costs (Amos N. 2019). If an objective analysis by qualified individuals indicates serious erosional problems, then reduction of erosional impacts should be a primary concern. In some areas, this may dictate the location of control points or may in fact eliminate certain areas from consideration for road construction as a result of unfavorable social or environmental costs associated with developing the area for economic purposes (Cervero, R. 2016).
Design Criteria
Design criteria consist of a detailed list of considerations to be used in negotiating a set of road standards. These include resource management objectives, environmental constraints, safety, physical environmental factors (such as topography, climate, and soils), traffic requirements, and traffic service levels. Objectives should be established for each road and may be expressed in terms of the area and resources to be served, environmental concerns to be addressed, amount and types of traffic to be expected, life of the facility and functional classification (Cervero, R. 2016). Additional objectives may also be defined concerning specific needs or problems identified in the planning stage and these include: Resource management objectives; Physical and environmental factors; Environmental constraints; Traffic requirements; Traffic service level; Vehicle characteristics; and Traffic safety (Murphy, M. 2013).
Design Elements
A road design standard consists of such elements as the definitive lengths, widths, and depths of individual segments (e.g., 4.3 meter traveled way, 0.6 meter shoulders, 3/4:1 cut slopes, 1-meter curve widening, 15 cm of crushed aggregate surfacing). Selection of the appropriate road design standard is critical to the overall efficiency of the road network to be installed, and certain elements will have a more rigid standard than others depending on the location of the road or road segment (Cervero, R. 2016). The entire range of values for each standard must be evaluated and selected according to their appropriateness for a given segment. Then, the various design elements must undergo testing to ensure that the final design meets the previously agreed upon management objectives. For instance, on steeper grades vertical alignment has a greater effect on travel speed than horizontal alignment. Therefore, surfacing and horizontal alignment should not be improved to increase speed where the road gradient is the controlling element (Santha, K.2015).
Number of Lanes and Lane Width
The majority of forest development road systems in the world are single-lane roads with turnouts. It is anticipated that most roads to be constructed or reconstructed will also be single-lane with turnouts because of the continuing need for low volume, low speed roads and their desirability from economic and environmental impact standpoints. In choosing whether to build a single- or double-lane road, use the best available data on expected traffic volumes, accident records, vehicle sizes, and season and time-of-day of use (Anselin, L. 2019). Historically, the United States Forest Service has used traffic volumes of approximately 100 vehicles per day to trigger an evaluation for increasing road width from one to two lanes. Considering a day to consist of 10 daylight hours, traffic volumes greater than 250 vehicles per day ordinarily require a double-lane road for safe and efficient operation. Intermediate traffic volumes (between 100 and 250 vehicles per day) generally require decisions based on additional criteria to those listed above: (1) social/political concerns, (2) relationships to public road systems, (3) season of use, (4) availability of funding, and (5) traffic management (Santha, K.2015).
Many of the elements used in such an evaluation, although subjective, can be estimated using traffic information or data generated from existing roads in the area. For instance, if heavy public use of the road is anticipated, a traffic count on a comparably situated existing road will serve as a guide to the number of vehicles per hour of non-Jogging traffic. Some elements can be evaluated in terms of relative probabilities and consequences and can be identified as having a low, moderate, or high probability of occurrence and having minor, moderate, or severe consequences. The more criteria showing higher probabilities and more severe consequences, the stronger the need for a double-lane road (Rhind, D. W. 2014).
Road width
The primary consideration for determining the basic width of the road bed is the types of vehicles expected to be utilizing the road. Secondary considerations are the general condition of the traveled way, design speed, and the presence or absence of shoulders and ditches. The presence of a ditch permits a narrower traveled way width since the ditch provides the necessary clearance on one side. Except for additional widths required for curve widening, limit traveled way widths in excess of 4.4 m (14 ft.) to roads needed to accommodate off -highway haul and other unusual design vehicles. Double-lane roads designed for off-highway haul (all surface types) should conform to the following standards (Phung-2010). Gravel or native surface roads should not have design speeds greater than 60 km/hr. Additional width is required for lower quality surfaces, because of the off-tracking corrections needed compared to a higher quality surface.
Shoulders may be necessary to provide parking areas, space for installations such as drainage structures, guardrails, signs, and roadside utilities, increase in total roadway width to match the clear width of an opening for a structure such as a bridge or tunnel, a recovery zone for vehicles straying from the traveled way, additional width to accommodate a “critical vehicle”, lateral support for outside edge of asphalt or concrete pavements (0.3 m is sufficient for this purpose). The space required for these features will depend on the design criteria of the road and/or the design of specific structures to be incorporated as part of the roadway (Santha, K.2015).
Speed and Sight Distance
Design speed is the maximum safe speed that the design vehicle can maintain over a specified segment of road when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the road govern rather than the vehicle operational limitations. The selected design speed establishes the minimum sight distance for stopping, passing, minimum radius of curvature, gradient, and type of running surface. Alternative combinations of horizontal and vertical alignment should be evaluated to obtain the greatest sight distance within the economic and environmental constraints. Suggested horizontal curve radius for a packed gravel or dirt road with no sight obstruction is 33 and 62 m (108 and 203 ft.) for design speeds of 24 and 32 km/hr. (15 and 20 mph), respectively. For curves with a sight obstruction 3 m (10 ft.) from the travel way, horizontal curve radii are 91 and 182 m (300 and 600 ft.), respectively. Suggested vertical curve length is 61 m (200 ft.).
Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
For low volume roads with design speeds of 24 kph (15 mph) or less, a horizontal alignment that approximates the geometric requirements of circular curves and tangents may be used. Alignment should be checked so that other design elements, such as curve widening and stopping sight distance can be considered. A minimum centerline radius of curvature for roads should be 15 meters (50 ft.) except for some recreation and administrative roads. Super elevation should not be used for design speeds less than 32 kph (20 mph). If snow and ice are factors, the super elevation rate should not exceed 6 percent and should be further reduced on grades to accommodate slow truck traffic. Transition segments into and out of super elevated sections should be provided to avoid abrupt changes in the roadway template (Khattak, 2005).
Vertical alignment, or grade; is of critical concern because of its potential for environmental damage and becomes increasingly important for grades exceeding 10 percent. Erosion potential increases as a function of the square of the slope and the cube of water velocity. The Most desirable combination of grade and other design elements should be determined early in the road location phase with additional caution exercised when grades exceed 8 percent. Vertical alignment normally governs the speed of light vehicles for grades exceeding 15 percent favorable and 11 percent adverse and of loaded trucks for grades exceeding 8 percent favorable and 3 percent adverse. The ability of a vehicle to traverse a particular grade is dependent on vehicle weight and horsepower and on the traction coefficient of the driving surface (Parida, M., 2005).
2.1.2.2. Road Maintenance
Road maintenance is essential in order to (1) preserve the road in its originally constructed condition, (2) protect adjacent resources and user safety, and (3) provide efficient, convenient travel along the route. Unfortunately, maintenance is often neglected or improperly performed resulting in rapid deterioration of the road and eventual failure from both climatic and vehicle use impacts. It follows that it is impossible to build and use a road that requires no maintenance (Max P. 2020). In order to plan for road maintenance needs, it is important to keep a complete set of “as built” plans and records of all maintenance operations and observations. The as built plan should contain the following: complete job index; complete history of project from planning stage to construction; photographic records; exact location and observations of any unstable conditions in relation to the road location; exact location of culverts and other drainage features; wet areas that may have required additional excavation and replacement with more suitable ballast backfield materials; and all major changes made to the original plan (Parida, M., 2005).
Probably the most valuable tool for any maintenance program is the knowledge and experience gained by individuals performing the maintenance. Every effort should be made to retain competent, knowledgeable, and experienced individuals in these positions not only from the standpoint of instituting and executing a good maintenance program, but for future road planning needs as well. In deciding on an appropriate level of maintenance for a particular road or road segment, consideration must be given to the amount and type of vehicle use and physiographic and climatic variables which may impact drainage structures (Caldas, 2011).
Classification of the Road Maintenance Operation
Periodic / Routine Repairs: Through repairs or day-to-day repairs which are done properly to the road pavements are known as periodic or routine repairs. These are generally carried out to low cost roads. Routine repairs are generally done by the departmental labours, whereas the periodic repairs are carried out by contractors which are invited at specific intervals (Burroughs 1985).
Special Repairs: Special problems need special solutions. Hence special repairs are carried out to overcome some serious special problems, so that the road may not get worsen in future. These repairs are generally carried out for high class roads. These kind of repairs are difficult to carry out hence skilled labours are required (Burroughs 1985).
Resurfacing: When the surface dressing of the pavement is renewed which was severely damaged it is called as resurfacing. It is usually done for bituminous roads (Burroughs 1985).
The Types of Road Maintenance
Emergency highway maintenance
Emergency road maintenance is, as its name suggests, a form of road maintenance undertaken in an emergency. It is normally required should something catastrophic happen that has an immediate and tangible impact on the flow of traffic or safety of road uses. For example, the most common example of emergency road maintenance you’ll probably see is due to heavy rains. This phenomenon can cause flooding, which disrupts the entire road network. Flooding can leave considerable debris in the road or cause considerable damage to the road’s surface. Because of this, flooding causes a very real risk of injury or even death for road users and pedestrians (Brown 2009). As you might imagine, emergency maintenance requires addressing immediately to prevent injury and/or disruption. In almost all cases, road maintenance services and local authorities have contingency plans to support them in dealing with emergency road maintenance swiftly (Thomas 2009).
Reactive highway maintenance
Reactive road maintenance happens as a result of a problem. The most common form of reactive road maintenance is pothole repair. As we’ve written about previously, potholes form gradually over time, where road surfacing has cracked and eroded to form a depression or hollow on the roadway. In order to fix this, permanent pothole repair is required. As you might imagine, reactive road maintenance can be very costly – particularly if what starts as a small issue is left to become a much larger (and potentially more dangerous) problem (Daghfal, 2015). As a result, those bodies that are responsible for the road try to keep reactive road maintenance to a minimum and practice preventative road maintenance where possible.
Preventative highway maintenance
Preventative road maintenance involves planning in order to avoid reactive road maintenance where possible. It means that roads are regularly inspected for damage and preventative repairs are carried out to avoid accidents or more extensive work in the future. One example of preventative highway maintenance is adding street lighting to trunk roads, carriageways and footways (Daghfal, 2015). By adding visibility to the road, the risk of serious damage is minimized. Preventative road maintenance is what keeps roads ticking over, traffic flowing and road users safe. Measures include surface treatments, highway preservation and road emulsions.
Examples of Road Maintenance
Road Surface Maintenance: Road surfaces should be reworked only as necessary to provide a smooth running surface and a good crown or slope for drainage. All-season roads will require continual monitoring for surface and sub grade wear or deterioration. Rutting and loss of ballast often occur during rainy season use. Snow removal equipment can also destroy the road surface by removing or altering the crown and removing ballast (Daghfal, 2015). A plan should be in place to provide ballast when necessary to maintain continued use of the road. On non-surfaced roads, a grader on the first pass should move material from the shoulder to a windrow in the center of the roadway. On the second pass, the blade should be centered on the windrow and continue working along the roadway. The blade should be adjusted so as to provide a slight slope or crown and should avoid cutting too deep into the road surface. Any excess material should be stored in the berm-not sidecast over the edge of the fill (Fletcher, D. 2011).
Pothole Patching: Potholes are terrible for your cars and are primarily caused by snowplows and all the salt used on the roads in the winter to melt ice and snow. Pothole patching is completed by cleaning out all the rocks and debris in the pothole and filling it up with patching materials. Pothole patching is commonplace in cold weather cities, and the holes must be filled for a temporary fix to ensure a safe and smooth ride before the road is eventually repaved (Fletcher, D. 2011).
Clearing Pavement: Another part of road maintenance is making sure that there is nothing on the road itself that can be harmful to drivers. This can be anything from fallen trees to debris that can be dangerous if left on the road. A lot of road clearing can be weather related as well. During the winter, snowplows are used to remove excess amounts of snow. Another preventative measure used in the winter that was previously mentioned is spreading salt on the roads to melt ice. In emergency situations or after traffic accidents, various parts of a car might be on the road, which will require removing as well. When there is a need for concrete removal on roads or bridges, slab sawing is the most effective method (Beiler, 2014). Anything on the road that can be harmful to drivers is cleared off the pavement.
Clearing Ditches and Culverts: Ditches and culvert pipes also need to be cleared for save travel. For ditches on the side of the road, maintenance crews will usually use a water hose to clear ditches of any unwanted materials. Larger, more cumbersome objects, like tree branches, will need to be removed from culverts and ditches by hand or machine. Proper removal allows for ditches and culvert pipes to function properly without any disruption (Beiler, 2014).
Proper Drainage: An additional weather element that can cause issues for the road is flooding. For roads to be prepared for potential flooding, the proper drainage needs to be in place. Temporary road closure might also be necessary if the road is too unsafe to drive on. This is when temporary signs will be put into place to guide drivers away from the road flooding (Beiler, 2014).
Shoulder Grading: The shoulders of roads also need to be maintained regularly. For this work to be done, the use of a grader is necessary. This tactic for the shoulder helps it become leveled and reshaped. This work is usually performed in rural areas on roads with no sidewalks. While shoulders are not necessarily the road itself, they are still an important part that needs to be preserved (Beiler, 2014).
Traffic Sign and Road Marking Repair: Traffic signs and road markings are essential for roads and do get damaged from time to time. Whether from a storm or an accident, damaged signs and road markings need to be taken care of to maintain road safety for drivers. A traffic sign repair might mean the installation of a new sign as well. Road marking repair will also require the roadway lines and lane perimeters to be repainted if they have faded over time and become difficult to see (Beiler, 2014). If there is construction being done and vehicles need to be rerouted, temporary traffic cones and barricades will be placed on the road to guide drivers. All these are necessary measures to take to ensure the safety of everyone on the road.
Roadway Lighting: Driving at night can be dangerous, especially on the highway with many cars driving at high speeds. Roadway lighting makes visibility far easier, and its upkeep cannot be understated. It’s critical that lights are properly functioning and are repaired quickly if they aren’t (Anselin, L. 2019).
Bridges: Bridge work is also incredibly common and important for road maintenance. Work that is often done involves the expansion joints of the bridge. This part of the bridge allows for there to be traffic on top of the bridge’s structure. Maintenance work is also done with the sealants of the bridge to make sure there is safe travel on the bridge. Some other kinds of bridge maintenance include painting, patching, washing, lubricating bearings, removing waste, sealing cracks, and other work for preservation (Anselin, L. 2019).
Vegetation Control: Most roads and highways have vegetation, such as grass, trees, and plants, on the side or on the medians between highways and boulevards. For this reason, another aspect of road maintenance is making sure all the vegetation is under control and doesn’t start to affect the road and its driver. Examples of vegetation that impede road or driver visibility include a low-hanging tree branch that might be blocking a sign, vegetation blocking or limiting side road visibility, and trees that are too close to the road (Anselin, L. 2019).
Resurfacing: Over time, roads easily deteriorate because of all the use they get and the harsh weather they endure year round, from the snow to the sun. When it gets to a certain point, roads will be resurfaced. Perhaps the most common method is asphalt overlay. This adds a new layer to the road that is smooth and therefore safer to drive on (Anselin, L. 2019).
Expansion: Road use continues to grow as more people travel on them daily. Certain roads, especially highways, are expanded to accommodate the additional traffic and commuters. Traffic congestion is real, but it can be prevented with some maintenance work. The expansion of a road means adding more lanes to it to increase travel efficiency and improve traffic flow (Anselin, L. 2019).
2.1.3. Concept of GIS
GIS is a computer-based system that provides a full suite of tools for the creation, management, analysis, and display of spatial data. Categories of features (e.g., roads, water bodies, jurisdictional boundaries) are grouped into “layers” and can be combined in order to create a reference base map. Specific business data features such as poles, signs, culverts, and guardrails are also categorized and displayed on top of a referential base map. GIS provides the typical data query functionality such as select data features/records by type, length, value, inspection date, and ownership (Longley, 2010). GIS can also query point, line, and polygon data features/records based on spatial relationships such as within an area, along a route, overlapping, within a given distance, or intersecting. Tabular queries and spatial queries can be combined in order to perform more complex analysis, and the results can be displayed on a map in order to illustrate patterns and spatial relationships. Data features can be displayed differently (color, size, pattern, width), based on various attributes (type, length, value, inspection date, ownership) in order to represent query/analysis results (Hanson, 2015).
A GIS is a type of database containing geographic data (that is, descriptions of phenomena for which location is relevant), combined with software tools for managing, analyzing, and visualizing geo spatial data (Mark, 2019). In a broader sense, one may consider such a system to also include human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, body of knowledge of relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations.The uncounted plural, geographic information systems, also abbreviated GIS, is the most common term for the industry and profession concerned with these systems (Max, 2020). It is roughly synonymous with geo informatics and part of the broader geospatial field, which also includes GPS, remote sensing, etc (Longley, 2010).
GIS store, analyze, and visualize data for geographic positions on Earth’s surface (Le-Tien &Phung, 2010). GIS stands for Geographic Information Systems and is a computer-based tool that examines spatial relationships, patterns, and trends in geography. Geographic information systems are utilized in multiple technologies, processes, techniques and methods. They are attached to various operations and numerous applications that relate to: engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business (Longley, 2010). For this reason, GIS and location intelligence applications are at the foundation of location-enabled services, which rely on geographic analysis and visualization.
GIS provides the capability to relate previously unrelated information, through the use of location as the “key index variable” (Longley, 2010). Locations and extents that are found in the Earth’s space time are able to be recorded through the date and time of occurrence, along with x, y, and z coordinates; representing, longitude (x), latitude (y), and elevation (z). All Earth-based, spatial–temporal, location and extent references should be relatable to one another, and ultimately, to a “real” physical location or extent (Hanson, 2015). This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry and studies.
History of GIS
There have been four distinct phases in the development of Geographic Information Systems. Phase one, between the early 1960s and the mid1970s saw a new discipline being dominated by a few key individuals who were to shape the direction of future research and development (Abed khan and Ravi, 2013). The second phase, from the mid1970s to early 1980s saw the adoption of technologies by national agencies that led to a focus on the development of best practice. Phase three, between 1982 until the late 1980s saw the development and exploitation of the commercial market place surrounding GIS whilst the final phase since the late 1980s has seen a focus on ways of improving the usability of technology by making facilities more user centric (Amos, 2019). Information regarding the uptake and development of GIS, particularly by National departments is patchy.
It also seems likely that the early stages of GIS development in the 20th century were characterized by individuals who were pursuing disparate goals in the field of GIS and that there was no single direction agreed for research to follow (Anselin, 2019). At that time the Harvard Laboratory for Computer Graphics, the Canada Geographic Information System, the Environmental Systems Research Institute and the Experimental Cartography Unit in the UK were the major influences in the field (Benon, 2011). A single direction did not appear until the field became the focus of intense commercial activity as satellite imaging technology meant that mass applications could be created for business and private use and at the time Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) became the dominant organisation in the field (Cervero, 2016).
The first documented application of what could be classed as a GIS was in France in 1832 (Claburn, 2009). French Geographer, Charles Picquet created a map based representation of cholera epidemiology in Paris by representing the 48 districts of Paris with different halftone colour gradients, an early version of a heat map. The map, published in the report, Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra-morbusdans Paris, is likely the first use of spatial analysis in epidemiology. A similar situation led to John Snow depicting cholera deaths in London using points on a map in 1854 (DeeptiKotecha, 2015). The Snow map was important because it was not just a presentation of data. An attempt was made to present an argument developed from a spatial analysis of data displayed on the map and it is often cited as one of the earliest examining of geographic inquiry in epidemiology (Fletcher, 2011).
The next significant step in the development of modern geographic information systems was in the early 20th century. A printing technique known as photozincography was used to separate out layers from a map. Vegetation, Water and developed land could all be printed as separate themes. Whilst giving the appearance of being a GIS, this does not represent a full GIS as there is no opportunity to provide an analysis of the mapped data (Fletcher, 2011).
By the 1960s the nuclear arms program had given rise to hardware and mapping applications and the first operational GIS had been launched in Ottawa, Canada (Fletcher, 2011). This early iteration of GIS was developed to store, collate, and analyse data about land usage in Canada. The system was enhanced throughout the seventies and eighties until the mid-nineties by which time it was driven by mainframe hardware and contained data sets from the entire Canadian land mass (Fotheringham, 2010).
During the seventies and eighties developments in spatial awareness and how to handle spatial data were being made in key academic centers such as Harvard and ESRI (Hanson, 2015). In the 1990s, ESRI, one of the largest GIS software companies, released ArcView which was a desktop solution for producing mapping systems via a Windows-based interface (Fotheringham, 2010). The ArcView standard was soon adopted by many government, business, defense, and non-governmental organizations due to its Graphical User Interface (GUI) interface and ease of use.
During the next decade the internet saw the adoption of GIS technologies at lower and lower levels of municipality as costs tumbled and the technology came into reach of local authorities. At the same time the spread of the internet provided a means by which to access and utilise standard maps as suppliers such as ESRI encouraged organisations to add data sets to the map sets they were already making available across the Internet (Fotheringham, 2010). Key sectors such as government, non-government bodies and utilities seem to be developing an approach to sharing data and there is evidence of significant sharing across such platforms as there has been significant sharing of data sets across shared platforms such as the ESRI offering. Currently the industry is debating how best to resolve issues arising from data ownership on public platforms (Hanson, 2015).
2.3 Benefits and practices of use of GIS in highway planning and maintenance.
In the planning stage of a new highway, GIS is used to evaluate potential sites based on various factors such as topography, land use, and environmental impact. Engineers use GIS to analyze data and make informed decisions about the location and alignment of the highway. GIS allows them to compare different options, assess their impact on the environment, and identify potential challenges (Lita et al., 2014). In Kenya, for example, engineers have used GIS to evaluate potential sites for new highways, including topography, land use, and environmental impact. GIS data was used to analyze different options, assess the impact on the environment, and identify potential challenges, such as the proximity of residential areas or the presence of protected species. By using GIS, engineers were able to make informed decisions about the location and alignment of the new highway, ensuring that it was constructed in the most appropriate and sustainable way.
GIS is an essential tool in the design and planning of highways. Engineers use GIS to create digital maps, 3D models, and simulations to visualize the highway network and its impact on the surrounding environment. This data is used to design and plan the alignment, profile, and cross-section of highways. By using GIS, engineers can make informed decisions about the design of the highway, such as the number of lanes, the type of pavement, and the placement of bridges and overpasses (Jin-Cyuan Lai et al., 2016). In South Africa, engineers have used GIS to create digital maps and 3D models of proposed highways, visualizing the alignment and the impact on the surrounding environment. This data was used to design and plan the alignment, profile, and cross-section of the highways, taking into account factors such as the number of lanes, the type of pavement, and the placement of bridges and overpasses. By using GIS, engineers were able to make informed decisions about the design of the highway, ensuring that it was built to meet the needs of the local community.
During the construction phase, GIS is used to manage the process, monitor progress, and ensure the project stays within budget and on schedule. Engineers use GIS to identify the location of materials and resources, such as gravel pits or asphalt plants, and to plan the most efficient delivery routes. GIS is also used to manage the construction workforce and to coordinate activities between multiple contractors and stakeholders (Sunder, 2011). In Ghana, engineers have used GIS to manage the construction of new highways, monitoring progress and ensuring that the project stays within budget and on schedule. GIS data was used to identify the location of materials and resources, such as gravel pits or asphalt plants, and to plan the most efficient delivery routes. GIS was also used to manage the construction workforce, coordinating activities between multiple contractors and stakeholders. By using GIS, engineers were able to ensure that the construction process was efficient, safe, and environmentally responsible.
GIS is used to monitor the condition of the road surface and infrastructure assets, such as bridges,
