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2.2. Artificial insemination world wide
The adoption of Artificial insemination worldwide started in the early 20th Century most especially in the developed world where modern animal husbandry practices and animal health care are practiced. These countries are mainly in Europe and America. In the developing world the adoption of AI is still very low due poor animal husbandry practices and animal health care.
The percentage rate of adoption of AI in these countries is below 5percent.
Artificial insemination is a globally accepted method of breeding cattle and is also effective for other species. An estimated worldwide total of 150 million cows is artificially inseminated. (Banadonna and Succi, 1980) In 1936 to 1938, an AI cooperative was established in New Jersey, modeled after the Denish system.
The improvement of livestock production which has been so remarkable in many industrialized countries, particularly in the last two decade, is due to the integrated effect of rapid development in several fields of industry. Increased food production, improved animal health, better husbandry, and the breeding of animals with the necessary genetic potential for improved performance are the most important of these developments.
In developing countries, however, the parallel improvements in livestock production have generally been inadequate, and one of the principal limiting factors has been lack of genetically improved animals (Bond, 1972).
There are different ways of increasing the number of genetically improved animals. Selection within the existing local population may be practiced, but this method often has to be ruled out because of the low genetic bases with which one has to start. The importation of superior breeding stock is too costly to be adopted on that scale.
Problems of adaptability also arise when high yielding cattle are transferred from temperate to tropical/ sub-tropical environments.
Crossing local female with superior imported sires is another method adopted at different periods by many developing countries.
With the advent of artificial insemination, the principle of cross breeding was given a new instrument for implementation on a large scale at a comparatively low cost (hall, 1959).
In spite of the efforts made to introduce large scale AI breeding services in several developing countries, growth in the use of AI has generally not been very strong, although there have been notable exceptions.
However, some estimates of global application of AI give an idea of its use in developing countries, Banadonna, 1972.
Based on the survey of the situation in 1961 and 1962, it was estimated that approximately 59 million cattle in the world were being artificially inseminated at that time.
Of the world total, some 56 million were in Europe, North America, Occania and Japan, leaving only about 3million artificially inseminated cattle in the rest of the world. In the recent world survey information received from 52 countries and these reported that more than 88 million cattle had been submitted to AI in 1970, (Macdowel, 1972). Of these Europe, the United States, Canada, News land, Australia and Japan accounted for 73 Million and the rest of the world for about 15 Million.
Roughly 10% of the world’s population of cattle was being subjected to artificial insemination by the end of 1960s. However, there is great variation in the incidence of inseminated animals both between and within Geographic regions. On the basis of the total population of cattle, it may be estimated that about 30 percent are artificially inseminated in Europe, North America, Australia, Newland and Japan, while the corresponding figure for the rest of the world is around 4 percent (Banadonna, 1972).
Notable exceptions are Cuba where about 1.5 million cows representing 50percent of the country’s dairy cows are served and Kenya were about 500,000 inseminations are recorded annually.
Artificial insemination is a comparative sophisticated method of animal husbandry. Its impact on cattle development is closely linked to the simultaneous introduction of reasonable standard of animal nutrition, disease control and husbandry, and infrastructure.
Unfortunately this has not always been recognized, and in some cases, AI has been purely adopted as a technical method of getting cows in calf. The aim of cattle improvement increased and more economical cattle production has usually forced in such cases. It is therefore necessary to emphasize that any AI scheme aimed at large scale improvement of national herd must be supported by programmes for the improvement of the closely allied sectors of animal husbandry and animal health. It should be recognized in this connection that AI techniques and organization used in industrialized countries do not necessary apply to developing countries. There are several constraining factors specific to these countries which call for specific solutions. (Dassanryake 1961) these specific solutions include;
Incentives to farmers;
In developing countries the large scale application of AI has played a key role in livestock improvement, particularly in respect of dairy cattle.
This was largely due to the promise of economic advantage that the technique had to offer.
It would thus be reasonable to assume that basic precondition for successful introduction or extension of AI services in developing countries would be the provision of economic incentives to farmers to breed improved animals, (Gang war, Branton and, Evans, 1961).
There are also certain basic technical qualities required of an AI service. Once an AI service is introduced, it should be available at all times, and not to be allowed to collapse because of inadequate resources or because of conflicts among representatives of the component disciplines of genetics, veterinary science, animal husbandry and economics, whose close cooperation is essential for the program. (Nishikawa, 1964).
Staffing an A.I service:
The execution of an A.I breeding service requires specialized staff at various levels. The importance of well-trained inseminators is sometimes over locked. The success of an A.I scheme is depended on its reliability and on its technical results which are to a large extent governed by the link that the service has with the farmers, namely, the inseminators. Inseminators must therefore be well trained and must undertake their job as a full time responsibility (Rakha et-al 1970).
Organization of field services;
In addition to reliability and good results, the successful extension of our A.I. breeding service is dependent on its ready availability of farmers. The pattern developed in industrialized countries where a central office receives orders by the telephone for inseminators and inseminators move from one farm to another by car, is usually not applicable in developing countries. Different systems have been allowed to resolve local difficulties, (Settergren, 1969).
In Kenya A.I. crushes are sometimes used for the provision of routine field veterinary services. This system offers the advantage that some of the services essential for the development of livestock production can be made available at the same location. It should be tested further, and applied in countries with relatively low cattle densities and reasonably good road communication. (Cannon, 1972).
Heat detection;
Heat detection has been reported to be one of the major management problems in developing countries in connection with A.I, (Dassanayake et al, 1961)
Zebu cattle show less intensive symptoms of heat and remain in oestrus for a shorter period than temperate and tropical cattle, (Branton, et al, 1961).
Recording;
An efficient information system is a necessary component of an A.I. breeding service. First, the actual conception rates per bull, per inseminator and per area would need to be recorded. Complete information on the number and performance of inseminated animals in various areas is also essential, (Idboeli et-al 1970).
Supply of semen;
The long term preservation of semen by deep freezing allows considerable flexibility in arrangements for the supply of semen in the initial phase of an A.I. programme. The semen can often be imported and domestic semen production postponed to later phase. Another important implication of the use of frozen semen is that the semen production unit can be geographically independent of the actual A.I. field work (Holland –al 1961)
Costs;
The cost of an AI breeding services varies widely among countries, and mainly depends on cattle density and the number of cows served. In the initial stages, with a small number of animals being inseminated, the cost per cow is high.
In industrialized countries, A.I. costs per cow vary between the equivalent of 40 and 75 litres of milk, depending on cattle density, the intensity of selection of sires, the cost of progeny testing and other evaluation activities.
The major expenses of an A.I. breeding services are represented by the wages of personnel, which in many instances amount to over 80 percent of the total valuable costs, (Stone el al, 1959).
2.3. Artificial insemination in Uganda
AI was introduced in Uganda in 1954 at Entebbe Livestock demonstration farm where experiments were conducted for the first time on indigenous cattle. The bank of deep frozen semen was established at Entebbe in 1959 with 514 dozes Nganda semen and 58 dozes of exotic semen of jersey and Guernsey breed, (Marples, 1959).
The animal breeding centre formally artificial breeding centre (ABC) at Entebbe has bulls from which semen is collected, diluted and frozen. The private sector through the commissioner of veterinary services also imports breeding materials (Semen, embryos etc.) from USA and uses ABC facilities for storage, (Mukiibi, 2001).
Since 1991 more sub- centres are have been opened by ABC and by private organizations. ABC supports them by training, supplying semen, AI equipment and liquid Nitrogen for storage of semen. The country has now got 79 government and private artificial insemination satellite centres country wide (Batungi, 2016).
Presently 2.5 percent of cattle farmers in Uganda have embraced artificial insemination to improve their beef and dairy product output, (Batungi, 2016).
Artificial insemination is an important technique that offers several advantages over natural mating in developing countries for breeding dairy cows. A major benefit of the technique is that it offer excellent possibilities to improve livestock genetically especially for small scale farmers so that their productivity is enhanced (Rodriguez-Martinazi, 2012).
In urban and peri-urban farming environment in Uganda, dairy farmers are faced with hardship of feeding their cattle and cannot afford the luxury of keeping a bull simply to breed one or two cows they keep for milk production for these farmers it will be advantageous to use a well-functioning AI service to avoid the cost feeding and management for a bull. Import of exotic milking cattle breed and Artificial insemination services in Uganda started in 1960s, (Nakimbugwe et al 2004).
AI services were formally being offered by the government institutions but of recent the private sector has taken on the service in the country. At first AI service in Uganda was a public sector service, now AI technicians have a variety of employment other than the government for example cooperatives AI organizations, NGOs and self-employed. There are two institutions that give courses for AI technicians in Uganda. Namely; The veterinary faculty at Makerere University and National Genetic Resources Centre and Data Bank (NAGRC) in Entebbe, (Lwanga 2011).
There a few different semen vendors (SVUs) in Uganda that provides semen dozes to the AI technicians; The government agencies, but also the NGOs and private actors. There is only one SVU that produces dozes locally in Uganda, that is why imported semen (from for example USA and Europe) constitute a large part of the market, (Shinyekwa, 2011).
The use of AI in Uganda slightly improving especially in the central region, but still very low in other areas like in the North. The use of AI in Uganda has increased from approximately 5percent in 2004 to 7percent in 2008 but it is still rather low relatively to other countries. There is also big variation with in the country with the highest adoption in the central part and only 2percent use in Northern part of the country, (Mbowa, 2011).
In one study by (Kaaya, 2005) the adoption of AI was 36percent in 3 districts in central Uganda reasons for not adopting being fragile and too big fetusfor cows to deliver, (Mbowa, 2011).
2.4. Methods of breeding cattle
2.4.1. Natural mating
Care should be taken in the choice of a bull to ensure that he has no obvious defects in these testicles, penis, legs or other general features.
He should be free from diseases. Tests can easily be conducted to test the viability of his semen. He should be an appropriate breed for our heifer cow, and not of same family line (father, mother, son, etc.). one should consult a livestock officer before choosing a breeding bull if you do not know whether the bull could function or whether he is fit to serve your heifer/ cow.
When a bull is stimulated by a cow or a heifer in heat, his penis stiffens. He mounts the cow or heifer, introducing his penis into her vulva and ejaculate sperms. If the sperm meets the ovum and conditions are right, it enters the uterus where it attaches to the uterine wall and grows in a fetus, the pre-mature calf (Hafez, 1993).
If fertilization does not take place, or conditions are not favourable in the uterus, such as infection, the egg passes on out of the cow, appearing as bloody discharge, the day after end of heat cycle. Then another 18 to 21 days must pass before another cycle can begin and a subsequent breeding.
When improper heat detection occurs, a heifer/ cow bred too early or too late will not conceive. Care should be taken to bring two animals together at the right time. (Kinsey 1993).
The major advantages of choosing to use natural mating in a cattle herd is the reduction of labour and ease of just placing a bull in with the nominated group of cows or heifers. A sire can only physically mate with a small number of cows per year, generating a small number of calves per year, (Zane, 2018).
In any livestock breeding enterprise there is a basic requirement for natural mating. There are numerous ways to improve the reproductive efficiency of a herd through natural mating.
Uganda.
Breeders that choose to use an assisted reproductive technique to improve their genetics and fertility almost always use some degree of natural mating in their herd, (Archbald, 1993).
Bull does all the work, so not spending hours heat detecting each day.
No facilities needed, cow can get bred out in pastures, (Zane, 2018)
Although natural mating poses the highest risk for venereal transmission of diseases, the other risk factors will increase the threat of contaminating a population of bulls.
Managerial and hygienic procedures in the housing and bedding of bulls are important factors that must not be overlooked because of the possibility of the colonization of the penis by certain bacterial, (Samper, 2009). With natural mating one cannot match each bull to each cow and sometimes multiple bulls need to be used to breed heifers versus cows.
If replacement heifers are being retained a new or different bull is needed to breed the replacement heifer too.
Bulls must be fed and cared for even when they are not out breeding cows.
High quality bulls cost a lot of money versus the cost to purchase semen from A.I sire, (Samper, 2009)
2.4.2. Artificial insemination
Artificial insemination is done by taking semen from the chosen bull and putting it into a cow when she is on heat. Bulls that are chosen for Artificial insemination have already sired highly productive daughters. Artificial insemination will only be effective if the farmer or his stock man can recognize when the cow is on heat and ready to be served.
Insemination at a wrong time will be a waste of time and money. It is not uncommon in the tropics for cows to be inseminated three or four times before they get pregnant, not because the signs of heat are not recognized properly. The heat period can be very short. More than half the heat periods in a herd will be less than 12 hours long. About half the heat periods are likely to happen at night, increasing the difficulty of detection. (MacDonald at el, 1985).
Observation is the key to heat detection. Watch the cow quietly at least three times a day for about twenty minutes each time. The best times to watch the cows are:
Early in the morning before milking, early in the afternoon and as late at night as possible. It is useless to watch the cows at milking or feeding time or when they are being moved, as real signs of heat are unlikely to be at those times.
Early warning signs: signs that a cow is about to come on heat are:
Licking or sniffing and chin resting
Either of the cows may be coming on heat, not just the one that licks, sniffs or rest its chin.
The cow is on heat when:
She stands willingly to be mounted by another cow and does not try to escape.
She mounts another cow from the front and watches her to see if she also stands to be mounted.
This is called “standing heat” stage.
Addition signs of heat are:
There is temporary drop in milk yield.
Restlessness, bellowing, swollen and reddened vulva lips and a clear thin, mucous discharge hanging from the vulva or sticking on the wall.
Using records. If records of the cow’s heat period are kept, it will be easy to know when to watch her for signs. (Ensminger, 1993)
The cow should not be served six weeks after calving. After that, each heat period comes every 20-22 days until the animal is pregnant again (Macdonald, at el 1985).
It has been repeatedly proven that Artificial Insemination produces an equal number of male and female offspring. The common complaint about Artificial Insemination, that it only produces bull calves is false. Normally Artificial Insemination should be preferred, if available for the first 2-3 breeding or heat cycle after calving.
If the cow still has not conceived (continue cycling) natural mating (a bull is usually recommended). It is better to try a surer means to get a cow into a calf as soon as possible, for the economics of keeping empty cows is very poor, and it’s better not to take the chance again that Artificial Insemination may fail. (Arch bald, 1993)
The risk of failure is likely greater than that of natural mating in other words, but value of Artificial Insemination sired offspring is far greater, so it is worth the first few times around.
However, it should be noted that the quality of the calves do not only depend upon genetics, but also on the environment in which they are raised (Kinsey, 1993).
2.5. Benefits of AI
Artificial Insemination in farm animals offers several advantages for genetic improvement, disease control and economical aspects (Hunter, 1982). These include;
Enables the wide spread use of outstanding sires and dissemination of valuable genetic material even in small farms.
Facilitates progeny testing under a range of environmental and managerial conditions, thereby further improving the rate and efficiency of genetic selection.
Leads to improved performance and potential of the national herd and permits coordination of a breading policy on national basis.
Accelerates the introduction of new genetic material through the export of semen and reduces international transport costs.
Enables the use of deep frozen semen after the donor is dead thus aiding preservation of selected lines.
Permits use of semen from incapacitated or origospermic males.
Reduces the risk of spreading sexually transmitted diseases.
It’s usually essential after synchronization of oestrus in large groups of animals.
Provides a necessary research tools for investing many aspects of male and female reproductive physiology.
It eliminates problems of mating large bulls to small heifers. (Etgen at el 1978)
When breeding season is over you do not have a bull or a lot of bulls to feed and keep from tearing down every fence on the property.
Allows the ability to produce consistency within the calves by using a single sire or similar genetic line of bulls.
Calves can be borne closer together through synchronization.
Even the smallest herd can get cows bred within budget rather than purchasing a bull to breed 2, 3 or even 15 cows (Humiton, 2007)
