QUANTIFYING POST-HARVEST LOSES ALONG THE VALUE CHAIN OF SUKUMA WIKI IN MUKONO DISTRICT

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This chapter is to comprise of the back ground of study, the problem statement which provides the problem in case and needs a general solution in word, the reason for carrying out this research is to find out the general and specific objectives, research questions, and significance.

1.1 Background of the study

A diversity of vegetables is grown all over the world for their nutritional value, taste and cuisine. Global vegetable production was 965.65 million tonnes in 2010 and continues to grow in order to meet an ever increasing consumer demand (FAOSTAT, 2012). A limited volume of fresh vegetables is traded globally, with just 3% comprising the export market in 2004 (Baas, 2006). This indicates a high level of self-sufficiency for most countries especially those ranked in the top 50, including South Africa. Improved productivity of vegetables can be attributed to widespread use of mechanization, improved quality inputs (e.g. seeds), technological advances and better cold chain management skills (Hodges et al., 2011).

Consumption of vegetables is important for preventing non- communicable diseases (NCD) including malnutrition and obesity related disorders (FAO, 2010; Kitinoja, 2010; Keatinge et al., 2011). Nevertheless, accessibility to a vegetable rich diet remains a challenge. This is primarily a problem in the developing world. In Uganda and in other developing countries, addressing the problem of food and nutrition security remains a key priority. At least 2 – 3 billion people are estimated to be suffering from malnutrition across the globe, while 925 million people suffer from hunger, representing almost 16% of the population of developing countries (FAO, 2009; FAO, 2010).

World population is increasing as the natural resources continue to be depleted at an alarming rate. Economic and productivity growth alone are not sufficient to eliminate hunger and provide vegetable sufficiency within an acceptable period of time (FAO, 2010). Food security at local, regional and global levels will need to be realized in the face of emerging challenges such as rapid population growth and climate change (Delian et al., 2011). Postharvest losses are among the major problems threatening the sustainable use of the limited natural resources for food production (Kitijonga, 2010). Globally, up to one third of all fresh produce, which is about 1.3 billion tonnes never reaches the consumer and is lost along the postharvest supply chain (Gustavsson et al., 2011). Regardless of their location, postharvest losses have a cumulative effect, contributing to waste and food insufficiency (Kader, 2005, Kader, 2010). Tapping into the potential to reduce postharvest losses can be one efficient measure to address the tensions between production and food sufficiency.

Retail trade constitutes an important industry across the globe, by providing a diversity of vegetable products at competitive prices. Vegetable suppliers including growers, traders and processors are mainly governed by the requirements of large retail chains and food service companies with regards to the quality and coordinated movement of product flows beyond the farm gate {Parfitt et al., 2010). Therefore it is at the retail stage that the cumulative effect of postharvest losses across the supply chain is determined {Nunes et al., 2009). The large quantities of vegetables on retail displays, and wide range of brand names promotes surplus supplies. This often leads to food waste with some of the products reaching their “sell by” date before being sold (Gustavsson et al., 2011). Produce that has to be sold at reduced value or doesn’t get sold at all constitutes to postharvest losses for the retailer (Stuart, 2009). Post retail storage losses at the consumer level usually result from storage temperature abuse and or surplus purchasing resulting in spoilage of vegetables before consumption {WRAP, 2011).

Limited data exists on postharvest vegetable losses a separate food entity {Genova et al., 2006; Weinberger et al., 2008; Kitinoja, 2010). To guide policy and address the problem of postharvest vegetable losses, reliable data on the current magnitude and sources of the losses along the supply chain must be determined {Newman et al., 2008; Weinberger et al., 2008). Most postharvest loss researches focus on vegetable physical losses alone {NAS, 1978; Kader, 2005; Kitinoja, 2010; FAO, 2011). However it is also imperative to investigate the physical losses in combination with nutritional value changes during postharvest, as well as the environment and resource use efficiency associated with the vegetable losses. This in turn provides comprehensive information on the nature and overall nutritional, economic and environmental impacts of the losses.

Postharvest losses originate from poor pre-harvest and postharvest management including bad handling of produce during transit and storage leading to partial or total loss in produce quality (Prusky, 2011). Food waste which is often referred to in literature as ‘food losses’ and ‘spoilage’ is a major concern with regards to postharvest losses. This type of loss relates to products intended for human consumption occurring at the end of the food supply chain as a result of retail and consumer behaviour (Parfitt et al., 2010). Reasons for food waste can stem from dislike and taste preference. This is a common case in developing countries where consumers are very sensitive to product appearance or cosmetic.

Postharvest data on collective fruit and vegetable losses is informative. However, it does not show exactly how vegetable losses are occurring on the ground. A detailed look at postharvest losses for vegetables as a separate food group is therefore more meaningful. Postharvest vegetable losses may differ significantly from general collective fruit and vegetable losses. This is an example of why it is important to separate vegetable losses from those of other food groups (Kitinoja, 2010). Therefore, losses for individual vegetable types should be equally considered.

Value Chain Analysis

The challenges of vegetable marketing can be addressed through a better understanding of the linkages between the farmers, traders and other actors along the commodity value chain. The value chain concept is a systems approach that draws from different disciplines; as a systems approach it combines component and functional relationships (Da Silva and De Souza Filho, 2007). There are a variety of approaches to conducting a value chain analysis. Some rely heavily on qualitative tools while others propose a combination of qualitative and quantitative tools in carrying out a value chain analysis. Hellin (2006) proposed that the value chain analysis should commence with delineating the value chain by creating a map of the market. This market map aids in building an understanding of different players or actors in an input or output value chain. The market map also helps in identifying the relationships between the actors as well as the factors that determine how well or badly the value chain is working. After understanding the different actors one is able to identify the different tools to use for different actors such as trader surveys. Value chain mapping involves creating visual representation between businesses in value chains as well as other market players. It helps illustrate and understand the process that an agricultural commodity goes through from the farm gate until it reaches the final consumer. A value chain map is also useful in identifying and categorizing key market players and support organizations. The value chain illustrates the different market channels that a product takes before reaching the final consumer. Therefore a value chain is an important tool to use for identifying bottlenecks, as well as possible opportunities that may not be apparent otherwise.

1.2 problem statement

Most studies on post-harvest technology have so far concentrated on grains and other durable products, which are stored dry and a substantial technology has been developed to deal with these problems. Less work has been undertaken on the perishable food crops, yet they are of great importance in many parts of the humid and sub-humid tropics and contribute the staple carbohydrate portion of the diets of some 500 to 700 million people in the developing countries (Lancaster and Coursey, 1984). In the case of the tropical perishable staple foods, which have no close analogues in temperate zone agriculture, this neglect of the traditional wisdom is especially unfortunate. In Uganda post-harvest losses of vegetables, Sukuma wiki inclusive needs to be handled so as to improve on the volumes and sales. Therefore the study seeks to analyze and quantify the post-harvest loses along the value chain of sukuma wiki in Mukono district.

1.3 Objectives

1.3.1Main objective

To determine the qualitative, and quantitative of postharvest losses of vegetables along the value chain in Mukono district.

1.3.2 Specific objective

To determine the postharvest physical losses of Kale.

To determine the postharvest biological losses of kale during storage.

Hypothesis

There is no statistically significant difference between losses market 1 and market 2

There is a significant difference between location 1 of storage and location 2

1.4 Justification

Vegetables are very susceptible to mechanical injury. This can occur at any stage of the marketing chain and can result from poor harvesting practices such as the use of dirty cutting knives; unsuitable containers used at harvest time or during the marketing process, e.g. containers that can be easily squashed or have splintered wood, sharp edges or poor nailing; over packing or under packing of containers; and careless handling of containers. Resultant damage can include splitting of fruits, internal bruising, superficial grazing, and crushing of soft produce. Poor handling can thus result in development of entry points for molds and bacteria, increased water loss, and an increased respiration rate which cause loses to the farmers and the market. The study will play a vital role in quantify the magnitude of postharvest losses of vegetables along the value chain.

1.5 Significance

The study will be important in the following ways;

The study will help in laying approaches to involve in addressing constraints at micro, meso and macro levels under post harvesting of vegetables.

The study strategies will focus on changing processes and behavior within the key operators/actors of the chain, supporting them to join active trade in the existing value chain within the vegetable subsector, address the market imperfections within the value chains, identify new business opportunities through research and development , organize the actors in chain upgrade activities aimed at building business competitive of the subsector in the regional and in the global market, while addressing the level of income at the household level for all the target household.

The study will provide knowledge management of vegetable value chains while focusing on Sukuma wiki as sub sectors and its value chains developed.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter reviews literature related to the topic under study. The researcher will review the related literature under the following sub-headings as guided by the objectives including; estimating the incidence of vegetable postharvest physical losses, to quantify the changes in physico-chemical properties related to quality during storage, to estimate the economic and environmental impacts of the losses.

On carrying out this literature review the researcher will rely on source documents like library research, journals, reports, newspapers and the internet in relation to quantify the magnitude of postharvest losses of vegetables along the value chain

2.1 To estimate the incidence of vegetable postharvest physical losses

Agriculture plays a key role in the overall economic performance of Uganda in terms of its contribution to GDP. The sector also plays a very significant role in the food security enhancement, poverty alleviation and employment generation efforts of the Nation. However, in more recent years, there has been a remarkable decrease in the contribution of agriculture to the gross domestic products (GDP). One of the most prominent crops that contribute greatly to the country’s GDP, are vegetables. Despite the rise in domestic production, the consumption of vegetables far exceeded local production, within the same interval of time, precipitating an increase in the vegetable imports bill to bridge the supply-demand gap.

Production of vegetables in Uganda is mainly in the hands of small-scale farmers who are still using traditional or unimproved technologies thus creating a wide gap between the actual yield and potential field production which has resulted in low resource productivity. Although considerable priority has been accorded to the production sector in the country, relatively little priority has been given to required post-production activities leading to unprecedented high food losses.

Post-harvest management in Uganda, like in most developing countries of the region, is grossly unsatisfactory. Losses incurred as a result of inadequate product handling, lack of access to post-harvest machineries and methods, poor storage and improper distributions methods result in diminished returns to producers. According to, post-harvest losses comprise all changes in the palatability, wholesomeness or quality of food that prevents it from being consumed by people. It may also denote the disappearance of food and should be directly measurable in economic, quantitative, qualitative or nutritional terms. Post-harvest losses can occur during any of the stages in the post-harvest operations (harvesting and transportation).

Post-harvest losses may be either quantitative or qualitative or even both. Quantitative losses lead to a reduction in weight or volume of the final usable product from the potential yield or harvestable paddy while qualitative losses leads to a reduction in value of the usable product due to physical and chemical changes in the

Annual food losses have been estimated around1.3 billion tones around the world. The concept of food losses is defined differently, in developed countries food losses arise at the consumer stage and concerns food which is processed and ready to eat while in developing countries food losses occur at the post-harvest stages, during marketing and processing. Postharvest losses (PHL) occur along the entire value chain and vary in extent depending on the produce and the region. In PICs supply chains of perishable produces for domestic markets are short and farmers, traders, wholesalers and retailers are the key actors. Almost all supply chains’ actors are involved in value-adding activities. The most common value adding activities are sorting, grading, cleaning, transporting, storage, pre-cooling and packaging. Postharvest losses in produce destined for the domestic market are comparably greater than in produce destined for export markets. This marked difference is primarily due to postharvest practices implemented by the farmer, and the leniency of the domestic market3. Losses incurred on the local market are the result of inappropriate postharvest handling and due to market surplus, particular during peak seasons.

2.2 To quantify the changes in physico-chemical properties related to quality during storage

The quality and nutritional value of fresh vegetables is affected by pre-harvest, harvest, postharvest handling and storage practices (Sablani et al, 2006). A loss of 50% between harvesting, transportation and consumption of fresh vegetables has been reported by Aworth and Olorunda (1981). Since vegetables are highly perishable, it encounters several problems in its transportation, storage and marketing (Ruth Ben et al., 1986). The principles that dictate at which stage of maturity a fruit or vegetable should be harvested are crucial to its postharvest quality, storage and marketable life. Harvesting marks the end of the growth cycle of vegetables and the beginning of a series of stages of very important activities that ensure that the consumer gets the vegetable in the preferred state and at the best of desired quality. Post-harvest physiologists over the years have distinguished three distinct stages in the life span of fruits and vegetables: maturation, ripening, and senescence. Maturation is indicative of the fruit being ready for harvest (FAO, 2008). Vegetables es are usually harvested when the plant is fresh and high in moisture content and are thus distinguished from field crops, which are harvested at the mature stage as grains, pulses and oil seeds. This high moisture content of vegetables makes their handling, transportation and marketing a special problem particularly in the Tropics. Hurst (2010), and Kitinoja and Gorny (2009), recommended good harvest management practices especially in picking high quality vegetables es since postharvest handling of fresh fruits and vegetables has a direct link with its shelf life. The riper the vegetables , the more susceptible it is to spoilage. They reported that, handling starts right from harvesting and put estimates of losses in developing countries in the range of 20% to 50% tracing causes of losses to the field, during transport and marketing practices. Bani et al. (2006) in a research conducted in Ghana to assess losses of vegetables transported from Bolgatanga to Accra revealed that losses along the route alone amounted to 20%. Losses of horticultural produce are therefore a major problem in the post-harvest chain.

Until recently, knowledge of postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables such as improved storage, packaging, transport and handling techniques developing countries like Uganda, were virtually non-existent for perishable crops in most areas and even if they existed, were not easily accessible to indigenes in the production areas, thus allowing for considerable losses of produce. Postharvest losses have been highlighted as one of the determinants of the food problem in most developing countries like Ghana (Ojo, 1991; Babalola et al, 2008). According to Oyekanmi (2007), postharvest loss prevention technology techniques becomes paramount as more produce is transported to non- producing areas to supply the growing population as well as storing for longer period to obtain a year round supply. Despite the remarkable progress made in increasing world food production at the global level, approximately half of the population in the third world does not have access to adequate food supplies. There are many reasons for this, one of which is food loss occurring in the postharvest and marketing systems. Evidence suggests that these losses tend to be highest in countries where the need for food is greatest (FAO, 1989; Oyewole and Oloko, 2006; Babalola et al, 2008). Unfortunately, in many countries experiencing serious food problems, there seems to be no consistent food policy framework which should form the foundation of effective implementation of programmes (Ojo, 1991).

Food supply can be improved either by increase in production or more importantly, reduction in loss. Since many researches show that great effort is being made in the area of food production especially in the developing countries, the decline in food production therefore can be traced to postharvest losses. Reduction in postharvest losses therefore, will increase food availability, hence alleviation of food shortage problems. Managing the effect of postharvest losses has the potential tendency to reduce the effect of the efforts put into production and increase marketing efficiency (Bautista, 1990; Okunmadewa, 1999). It is against this background that this study which forms part of a larger study seeks to examine the underlying factors that contribute to the massive farmer level postharvest losses in the vegetables postharvest value chain, taking into consideration the pre-harvest, harvest and immediate postharvest handling practices and how it affects the income of vegetables farmers in Uganda.

Due to poor postharvest handling practices, in both domestic and export supply chains, farmer suffered from quantitative and qualitative postharvest losses. Produces such as vegetables, yams, sweet potato, vegetables and a variety of aroids, roots and tubers are highly perishable and as a result, post-harvest losses can be substantial.

2.3 To estimate the economic and environmental impacts of the losses

Vegetable crops are very important nutritionally for contributing vitamins, roughage and flavour in human diets. They serve to thicken soups and increase the bulk of stews (Abbiw. 1997). Vegetable crops especially eggplant, okra: onion, pepper, tomato and leafy vegetable are practically used in every household and thus, playing an important role in the farming systems. Most peasant and small-scale fanners produce one or more type of vegetable within their farming system. Tins, especially for the peasant farmer, is basically consumed domestically whilst the excess is sold. Meanwhile, there are small to medium scale farms where vegetables are produced commercially.

Goletti and Wolff, 2010), stated that when post-harvest losses occurred there are effect on: 1) food security, 2) poverty and 3) sustainable use of resources. The study also indicated that poor management practices when adopted by large farm sizes tend to have higher effect on rice loss than when adopted by small farm sizes. However, both quantitative and qualitative losses of rice could have negative impact on the producer since there is serious socio-economic reduction in the output. On the other hand, the losses incurred by the producer could result in gain for the livelihood of the labourers engaged in manual grain picking when they go back to the field to glean.

Physical and quality losses of vegetables are mainly due to poor temperature management, use of poor quality packages, rough handling, and a general lack of education regarding the needs for maintaining quality and safety of perishables at the producer, wholesaler, and retailer levels (Kitinoja et aJ.. 2011: Kitinoja et al., in press). These losses in turn lead to loss of market value, concerns about food safety, and lower incomes for growers.

In order to resolve the extensive postharvest losses in several of these vegetables, it is important to understand the fanning practices that might be responsible for such losses.

Postharvest losses have been highlighted as one of the determinants of the food problem in most developing countries like Uganda (Ojo, 1991; Babalola et al, 2008). According to Oyekanmi (2007), postharvest loss prevention technology techniques becomes paramount as more produce is transported to non- producing areas to supply the growing population as well as storing for longer period to obtain a year round supply. Despite the remarkable progress made in increasing world food production at the global level, approximately half of the population in the third world does not have access to adequate food supplies. There are many reasons for this, one of which is food loss occurring in the postharvest and marketing systems. Evidence suggests that these losses tend to be highest in countries where the need for food is greatest (FAO, 1989; Oyewole and Oloko, 2006; Babalola et al, 2008). Unfortunately, in many countries experiencing serious food problems, there seems to be no consistent food policy framework which should form the foundation of effective implementation of programmes (Ojo, 1991).

Food supply can be improved either by increase in production or more importantly, reduction in loss. Since many researches show that great effort is being made in the area of food production especially in the developing countries, the decline in food production therefore can be traced to postharvest losses. Reduction in postharvest losses therefore, will increase food availability, hence alleviation of food shortage problems. Managing the effect of postharvest losses has the potential tendency to reduce the effect of the efforts put into production and increase marketing efficiency (Bautista, 1990; Okunmadewa, 1999). It is against this background that this study which forms part of a larger study seeks to examine the underlying factors that contribute to the massive farmer level postharvest losses in the vegetables postharvest value chain, taking into consideration the pre-harvest, harvest and immediate postharvest handling practices and how it affects the income of vegetables farmers.

The quality and nutritional value of fresh vegetable is affected by pre-harvest, harvest, postharvest handling and storage practices (Sablani et al, 2006). A loss of 50% between harvesting, transportation and consumption of fresh tomato has been reported by Aworth and Olorunda (1981). Since tomato is highly perishable, it encounters several problems in its transportation, storage and marketing (Ruth Ben et al., 1986). The principles that dictate at which stage of maturity a fruit or vegetable should be harvested are crucial to its postharvest quality, storage and marketable life. Harvesting marks the end of the growth cycle of tomatoes and the beginning of a series of stages of very important activities that ensure that the consumer gets the vegetable in the preferred state and at the best of desired quality. Post-harvest physiologists over the years have distinguished three distinct stages in the life span of fruits and vegetables: maturation, ripening, and senescence. Maturation is indicative of the fruit being ready for harvest (FAO, 2008). Vegetables are usually harvested when the plant is fresh and high in moisture content and are thus distinguished from field crops, which are harvested at the mature stage as grains, pulses and oil seeds. This high moisture content of tomato makes their handling, transportation and marketing a special problem particularly in the Tropics.

Hurst (2010), and Kitinoja and Gorny (2009), recommended good harvest management practices especially in picking high quality tomatoes since postharvest handling of fresh fruits and vegetables has a direct link with its shelf life. The riper the tomato, the more susceptible it is to spoilage. They reported that, handling starts right from harvesting and put estimates of losses in developing countries in the range of 20% to 50% tracing causes of losses to the field, during transport and marketing practices. Bani et al. (2006) in a research conducted in Ghana to assess losses of tomatoes transported from Bolgatanga to Accra revealed that losses along the route alone amounted to 20%. Losses of horticultural produce are therefore a major problem in the post-harvest chain.

The widespread cultivation coupled with its high perishability, bad road network, and lack of efficient and reliable transportation system leads to pockets of spoilage especially during the harvest season. This leads to huge economic losses for some of the fanners. It is estimated that postharvest losses of perishable crops in Ghana range between 30-80% (Kitinoja et al., in press). Pre-harvest factors significantly affect the levels of post-harvest losses of perishable crops (FAO. 2010: Wills et al., 2016).

2.4 Summary of the literature

Every Ugandan household uses sukuma wiki as well as other leafy vegetables. Its widespread usage had led to wide cultivation using different soil types. Pockets of spoilage predominate during favorable seasons. Postharvest losses up to about 50% have been documented for some of these perishables. An intervention in the postharvest subsector in the past oriented towards isolated technical solutions with subsequent dissemination within the chain from production to consumption is studied. Production was basically during the dry season when there is no major farming active for the main staples.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter contains the methods that will be used to enable the researcher gather data for the study. It comprises the research design, sample size, sample selection, research methods, research instruments, data analysis, research procedure, ethical consideration, validity and reliability of data.

3.2 Research Design

The researcher will use a cross sectional research design whereby both qualitative and quantitative research methods will be used. Quantitative methods will be used to interpret and analyze numerical data which will be in form of frequencies and percentages presented in tables and charts. On the other hand, qualitative methods will be used to describe the occurrences and phenomenon of the variables and this will be in form of statements and narrations. The design is chosen because it generates quick self-reports from the participants under the study (Leedy & Ormorod, 2001).

3.3 Sample Size

From the target population of the of sukumawiiki farmers in Mukono, 10 farmers, 10 vendors and 10 bunches of sukuma wiki will be taken as a sample to represent the others.

From a target population of respondents including farmers and workers, sample of 30 respondents as guided by Krejcie & Morgan (1970) will be selected to provide information in relation to quantifying the magnitude of postharvest losses of vegetables along the value chain

3.4 Sample Selection

Sample selection is simply a process of selecting a portion of the population, in the research area, which will be a representation of the whole population (Michael, 2012). Both random and non-random (purposive) sampling techniques will be used in sample selection.

Random sampling will be used in selecting the farmers since they are many. This will give each farmer a chance to participate and to avoid bias. Name of the farmers will be written on pieces of papers, folded and put in container, stirred and will be picked and recorded.

Purposive sampling will be used in selecting the agriculture officials in Mukono since they are the implementers, govern and monitor farmers’ activities.

3.5 data collection

I collected data from two different markets in mukono (kiko and seta market) were I had 10 vendors and from each vendor I randomly sampled 10 plants from their bunches of sukuma wiki and the data collected was on the holes in the leaves, tears on the leaves and broken shoots and they were represented with numbers as seen below

I collected data from a farm in namayiba in namataba primary school farm were from the 10 bunches of sukuma the farmer collected I only sampled out 10 plants and collected only 5 bunches and they were also represented by figures as shown in the table below

3.5.3 Documentation

It is through this method that the researcher will review international, global, national and local documents and reports that are relevant to the quantify the magnitude of postharvest losses of vegetables along the value chain. This will be done in relation to the objectives and bring out the gaps that this study is supposed to fill; this will be used in collecting secondary data.

3.6 Research Instruments

Data will be collected through two instruments and these will include; questionnaire and interview guide.

3.7 Data Analysis

According to Airat (2015), data analysis is the process of arranging, organizing and summarizing data in a manner that makes it easily understandable to the reader. Data analysis will involve data editing, coding, classifying and tabulating. Data editing will be done by the researcher after completion of data collection and coding of closed ended questions will be done concurrently (Mouton, 2002).  The captured data will be scrutinized for any missing or inadequate information. Quantitative data from questionnaires will be stored, edited and coded in the data editor for SPSS. Descriptive statistical methods like frequency tables and measures of central tendency like Mean, Mode, Median and standard deviation shall be used to describe the findings. Correlation and regression methods will be used to find out whether there is a relationship between the Independent Variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV). The data will be described and summarized using descriptive statistics so as to enable the distribution of scores using few indices (Mugenda and Mugenda, 1999).The interview responses will be transcribed, sorted and classified into themes and categories in order to support the hypotheses tested. The report will then be written i.e. detailed reports on performance of pupils will be scrutinized, analyzed, correlated and presented in form of paraphrase and quoted upon permission of respondents if it’s deemed necessary. The other data shall be presented in tabular form, on pie charts and graphs.

3.8 Research Procedure

A letter of introduction will be obtained from Uganda Christian University- Mukono, clearance and permission from the relevant officers will be sought to conduct the study. The letter will then be presented to the farmers seeking permission to carry out the study on their farms. The researcher will request to be introduced to the various categories of people to be included in the study. The researcher will distribute the questionnaires to the respondents and ensure that the filled questionnaires are collected as soon as they get filled to avoid loss. The researcher will also conduct the interviews and keenly jot down salient issues mentioned during the interviews. Both qualitative and quantitative data will be collected using suitable instruments.

3.9 Ethical Consideration

The researcher will respect the dignity of the respondents and treat the information given by them with uttermost confidentiality and for the research purpose only. The researcher will also be keen not to ask provocative questions to the respondents especially questions concerning private life and even those which degrade some body’s dignity. Their names will not be included in the questionnaire.

3.10 Validity and Reliability of Data

This will be done for purpose of data quality control (Kothari, 2004).

3.10.1 Validity of Instruments

Validity refers to whether the instrument is appropriate for what it is meant to measure as observed by (Amin, 2005). For purposes of ensuring validity of instruments, the researcher will develop instruments under close guidance of the supervisor. After designing questions, they will be pre-tested to a tenth of the farmers in the sample. This will help the researcher to identify ambiguous questions in the instruments and will be able to re-align them to the objectives. For the instrument to be accepted    as valid, average index should be 0.7 or above Amin (2005).

3.10.2 Reliability of Instruments

Reliability is the extent to which a test or procedure of data collection yields similar results under constant conditions on all occasions (Amin, 2005). To ensure reliability of instruments the researcher will administer one type of questionnaire to farmers using Cronbach reliability test and Alpha values will be attained. For the instrument to be accepted    as reliable, average index should be 0.7 or above Amin (2005).

References

Coursey, D.G. (1983). Postharvest losses in perishable foods of the developing world. In: Postharvest physiology and crop preservation (edited by M. Lierberman). Pp 485-514. Plenum Press, New York.

Baas, E. (2006). The world of vegetables: Challenges and opportunities for vegetable suppliers. Rabobank, The World of Vegetables.

Delian, E., Chira, A., Chira, L. & Svulescu, E. (2011). Arbuscular Mycorrhizae: An overview. Horticulture, Biology and Environment, 2(2), 167-192.

FAO (2009). Postharvest losses aggravate hunger.

FAO (2010). The state of food insecurity in the world: Addressing food insecurity in the protracted crises. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations Rome, ISBN 978-92-5-106610-2.

FAOSTAT (2012). Food Supply: Crops primary equivalent: Food supply quantity 2007(g/capita/day).

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Kader, A.A. (2005). Increasing Food availability by reducing postharvest losses of fresh produce. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 682, 2169-2176.

Kader, A.A. (2010). Handling of horticultural perishables in developing vs. Developed countries. Acta Horticulturae, 877, 121-126.

Keatinge, J.D. H., Yang, R.Y., Hughes, J. d’A., Easown, W.J. &Holmer, R. (2011).The importance of vegetables in ensuring both food and nutritional security in attainment of the millennium development goals.

Kitijonga, L. (2010). Identification of appropriate postharvest technologies for improving market access and incomes for small horticultural farmers in Sub­Saharan Africa and South Asia. WFLO Grant Final Report. Grant number 52198.

Parfitt, J., Bathel, M. & Macnaugton, S. (2010). Food waste within food supply chains: quantification and potential for change to 2050. The Royal Society, 365, 3065-3081