TEACHER’S INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES AND PUPILS’ ORAL READING FLUENCY IN RUNYORO-RUTOORO AT PRIMARY THREE CLASS IN KAGADI TOWN COUNCIL

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

CPDs               Continuous Professional Development Courses

DES                 Directorate of Education Standards

EGR                Early Grade Reading

MoES              Ministry of Education and Sports

NAPE              National Assessment for Progress in Education

NCDC             National Curriculum Development Centre

NICHD           National Institute of Child Health and Human Development

ORF                Oral reading fluency

P3                    Primary Three

RTI                  Research Triangle Institute

UNEB            Uganda National Examinations Board

UNESCO       United Nations Education Scientific Cultural Organisation

UPE                 Universal Primary Education

WCPM            Words Correct Per Minute

ZPD                 Zone of Proximal Distance

Chapter One

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the background of the study that entails the historical, conceptual and contextual perspectives. It also highlights the problem statement, purpose of the study and research objectives. Scope of the study, significance, limitations, delimitations and definitions of key terms have been highlighted in the background.

1.2 Historical perspective

Good reading helps to communicate ideas between the reader and the writer. The reader employs correct sound articulation, word decoding, correct expression and good reading speed referred to as oral reading fluency (ORF). It helps in understanding the read text to both the reader and one listening (Kim & Wegner, 2015; Rasinski, 2014; Talada, 2007).

In America (USA) around 1990s, ORF was being taught using the round-robin method of teaching (The National Reading Panel (USA), 2000). Other methods led by story method, were introduced giving more deem light in reading fluency (Rupley et al, 2020). ORF started as word reading fluency emphasising conscious and automatic word identification (Kim & Wagner, 2014, 2016). It developed into text reading fluency enabling the reader release limited conscious and memory considering speed and expression (Castillo & Wagner, 2019; Paige, 2020). Neglect of the component in teaching also affected its development (Wolf & Katzir-Cohen, 2001).

In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), ORF suffered the same as in USA (Zainab and Emad, 2020). In South Africa, failure to acquire fluent reading led to poor comprehension skills (Cotter, 2012). This was addressed with the introduction of Early Grade Reading (EGR) methodology emphasising the five components of literacy; phonemic awareness, alphabetical principle, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension (RTI, 2015).

In East Africa ORF was for long rated low, for instance in Luganda 25.8%, Lango 50.9% and English 44.8% in Uganda and Dholoho 20.2%, Gikuyu 14.5%, Kiswahili 18.6% and English 14.0% in Kenya all caused by the methods of teaching (Piper & Milksic, 2016). In Uganda, Uwezo (2016) noted that a P5 pupil could only understand a P2 text due to low levels of reading fluency. Poor methods of teaching are part of teacher’s instructional practices. To improve this thematic curriculum and later EGR were introduced.

EGR under the Global Partnership in Education (GPE), trained teachers in the methodology of teaching literacy emphasising reading fluency. The project provided schools with local language reading materials. Currently, these are the materials available for reading lessons. This intervention emphasised literacy in local language. Only government aided schools adhered to this policy. Despite this intervention oral reading fluency has remained low (UNEB, 2018).

1.3 Theoretical perspective

Teachers are at the cornerstone to guide learners to acquire ORF. According to the behaviourism theory of learning, learning is acquired from the more knowledgeable person to the less knowledgeable one (Zainab and Emad, 2020). It is done through a number of trials provided by the teacher. The teacher breaks the knowledge to be learnt into small parts or skills that must be practiced regularly. Correct trials are rewarded by praises and mistake corrected immediately. During reading, correct pronunciation, punctuation, decoding and expression amount to ORF and should be given immediate feedback by the teacher (Rasinski, 2014).

Learners need support to learn as Bruner’s theory of scaffolding states: ‘When learners are given the support they need while learning something new; they stand a better chance of using that knowledge independently’ (Belland, 2014; Mahan, 2020; McLeod, 2018).  Teachers and other adults give active support needed for acquisition of ORF, (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). This constitute part of teacher’s instructional practices.

1.4 Conceptual perspective

ORF is a very important component of reading of life. In schools, it is useful for overall academic success and in life for successful workplace (Research Triangle Institute (RTI), 2015).  It involves reading accurately with expression and fast reading of texts and it helps in getting meaning (Kim & Wagner, 2015).

Wolf and Katzir-Cohen (2001), LaBerge and Samuels (1974) and Carver (1997), define ORF as “a level of accuracy and rate where decoding is relatively effortless; oral reading is smooth and accurate with correct prosody.”  In a simpler way, Zainab and Emad (2020), similarly to DiSalle & Rasinski (2017), defined ORF as the ability to read aloud a text accurately with natural speed.

ORF notion has three indicators, the ability to read texts with accuracy, appropriate rate or speed, and prosody (Hudson, Koh, Moore & Cantrell, 2020). Accurate reading with easy word identification and decoding is known as automaticity in ORF (Rasinski, 2015; Talada, 2007; Zainab and Emad, 2020). It helps the reader’s mind to stick on understanding the text read rather than word recognition and blending.

Reading with expression and tone variation is another aspect in ORF called prosody (Rasinski, 2014; Talada, 2007; Zainab and Emad, 2020). A fluent reader has a smooth and continuous flow of reading rhythm motivating the listening ear. Prosody brings out the writer’s mind of communication. Like automaticity, prosody aids getting meaning from the read text.

In classroom teaching such practice is provided by the teacher depending on his/her instructional practices. Teacher’s instructional practices include all that teachers do to come out with a well taught lesson. They fall into preparation practices, teaching practices and assessment practices done with the intention of improving pupils’ ORF (Francesco & Celon, 2020). Instructional practices aim at the effectiveness (Lakkeal as cited by Malunda, Onen, Musaazi & Oonyu, 2016; Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES), 2012).

Svanes & Klette (2018) quote Grossman and McDonald (2008), referring instructional practices to the different approaches teachers use in their conversations with individual pupils. Teaching methods, procedures and strategies form the teacher’s teaching practices.

Saleh &Jing (2020) defined instructional practices as the action taken by the teacher in developing the lesson in the classroom. It all starts with preparation practices that help getting content, activities to develop this content, materials that will be used during delivery and the procedure or strategies of delivery and assessment.  Methods of teaching fall in the teaching practices as assessment fall under assessment practices. In using these instructional practices, one is assured of learners’ improved ORF.

1.5 Contextual perspective,

Kagadi district is made up of different tribes that include mainly Banyoro, Bakiga, Bafumbira, Bakonzo and Banyarwanda. Each tribe has a native language of its own with Runyoro-Rutooro as a widely used local language. Some native languages interchange some of the Runyoro-Rutooro sounds to those of their languages. For instance, Runyankore Rukiga interchanges ‘r’ with ‘l’ and ‘s’ with ‘sh’ as in ‘omusheija’ for ‘omusaija’. The Bakonzo pronounce ‘enkooba’ in Runyoro-Rutooro as ‘engoba’. Using the area local language as the medium of instruction in lower primary, P1 to P3, may not be easy for both the teachers and pupils of other tribes. A typical class of 60 pupils, about 30 only are native Banyoro. Decoding words and the correct native like pronunciation may be a problem. All these are likely to affect ORF in the medium of instruction language (Hu, 2015). However, no study has been done to prove this.

MoES introduced thematic curriculum in 2006 and EGR methodology in 2016 in schools to improve reading fluency. Teachers teaching literacy in P1 to P3 were trained in the EGR methodology. The methodology uses one hour for teaching reading and writing each aspect lasting 30 minutes every day Monday to Friday in Runoro-Rutooro. Uwezo (2019) and UNEB (2018) National Assessment for Progress in Education (NAPE) report, rated oral reading fluency low in Runyoro-Rutooro at 30.5% in the greater Kibaale district that includes Kagadi and Kakumiro districts. In all these reports nothing is pointed out on how teachers teach and assess oral reading fluency in Kagadi Town Council (T/C).

1.6 Statement of the problem

Teacher’s instructional practices are known to improve pupil learning and pupils’ ORF (Francisco & Celon, 2020; Svanes & Klette, 2018). Reading a text with accuracy at an appropriate speed, pausing with expression, helps both the listener and the reader to understand the read text. It involves automaticity, word identification and decoding; and prosody, reading a text smoothly, effortlessly, with proper phrasing and expression if well done that improves the reader’s comprehension (Overstreet, 2014; Rasinski, 2014). To attain this state of reading depends on how best the teacher applies instructional practices right from planning, the methods and the content, teaching and assessment activities to be used during teaching. ORF is teachable, practiced and assessed (Cohen, 2011; Parenti & Chen, 2015), depending on the teacher’s instructional practices.

However, in Kagadi Town Council reading fluency is poor (UNEB, 2018). Children read with a lot of word breaking without expression and the needed rate. ORF in Runyoro-Rutooro, the medium of instruction is rated at 30.5% by the NAPE report (UNEB, 2018). There is need to assess the effectiveness of teaching methods, activities and materials teachers use during the teaching of ORF (Cohen, 2011; Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018; Parenti & Chen, 2015; Pikulski & Chard, 2015). Preparation for teaching is a basis for effective teaching (Nurie, 2017). This is another factor that requires investigation.

In the USA, Pikulski & Chard (2005), and in UAE, Zainab & Emad (2020), noted neglect and poor methods of teaching ORF. Assessment of oral reading fluency neglected as its teaching. Most teachers assess ORF informally (Popham, 2011; Sultana, 2019). Interventions to improve oral reading fluency were put in place by the government but results still reveal low rates. If this problem is not addressed, reading as a means of communication will be completely lost.

The researcher intends to conduct continuous professional development courses (CPD) for teachers on the methods of teaching and assessing oral reading fluency. Support supervision will be conducted to enforce implementation of what was learnt. In this way teachers will be helped to use their instructional practices to improve pupils’ ORF at P3 class in Runyoro-Rutooro.

1.7 Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study is to explore how teacher’s instructional practices improve pupils’ ORF in Runyoro-Rutooro at P3 class in Government aided primary schools in Kagadi T/C.

1.8 Objectives of the study

This study will be guided by the following objectives.

1. To identify which teacher’s preparation practices for teaching improve pupils’ oral reading fluency at P3 class in Kagadi town council.
2. To assess how teacher’s teaching practices promote pupils’ oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro at P3 class in Kagadi town council.
3. To find out how teachers, use their assessment practices to assess prosody to develop pupils’ oral reading fluency at P3 class in Kagadi town council.

1.9 Research hypothesis

H_1. There is a significant statistical relationship between teacher’s teaching practices and pupils’ oral reading fluency at a 0.05 level of significance.

1.10 Research questions

1. What preparation practices for teaching do teachers use to develop pupils’ oral reading fluency?
2. How do teachers use their assessment practices in assessing prosody to develop oral reading fluency?

1.11 Scope of the study

The study will be conducted in Kagadi Town Council public primary schools in Kagadi district. Public schools implement the government policy of using a local language as medium of instruction for P1 to P3 classes. Runyoro-Rutooro is used in Kagadi T/C. This area is selected as it has never had any research study on teacher’s instructional practices and pupils’ oral reading fluency. The study is intended to cover the teaching and assessment of oral reading fluency at P3 class. This class is selected on assumption that children understand reading more than P1 and P2 considering the number of years they have been introduced to reading. It will embrace preparation for teaching, the methodology and activities used to develop and assess ORF. Teachers teaching the sampled classes will be observed in classroom teaching Runyoro-Rutooro, using the clinical model of supervision.

The study will cover a period from 2018 to 2023, a time after teaching reading was revitalised through the use of thematic curriculum and the EGR methodology. Also, this time comes after the last NAPE report on assessment of ORF in lower primary classes.

1.12 Significance of the study

This study will be of benefit to a number of stakeholders as shown below.

Education managers both at national and at district level will use the results to make appropriate decisions during policy making. This might be used to improve the policy of using the native language as a medium of instruction.

Head teachers will use the results to improve their support supervision in their day to day running of instructional programmes. Support supervision and needs assessment will be done following the findings that will be identified. Head teachers can use the results to conduct refresher or continuous professional development courses for their teachers. Teachers will use the results to update their teaching of ORF, methods of teaching, activities given and assessment done will be based on the findings of this study.

Learners will benefit from the professional growth and development of their teachers. Improved methods and techniques of teaching ORF will improve their proficiency in reading and in turn the general learning. Parents and the community will benefit from the reading fluency of their children.

Findings and recommendations of this study will also benefit other researchers. They will work as a base for other research especially on the teaching of ORF.

1.13 Limitations of the study

The study may be affected by the many native languages used in Kagadi town council. The different sounds used in different languages may affect accuracy and pronunciation during the study. However, even if these come in on the way, the sampling techniques to be used will control their effects.

Some teachers in the sample many not give the required information in fear to expose their weaknesses. The researcher will minimize this through assurance of confidentiality.

1.14 Delimitations

This study looks at ORF in Runyoro-Runyoro in Kagadi town council. The town council is made up of a combination of mixed native languages of Uganda. Mother tongue interference of these languages may have an effect on ORF in the area of study. Generalizing the findings to all districts may not hold.

The study will emphasise oral reading fluency specifically automaticity and prosody observable through listening to reading aloud.

1.15 Theoretical framework

Definition and Theory

Learning oral reading fluency requires support from a more knowledgeable person. Bruner believed that as children start to learn new concepts, they need help from teachers and other adults in the form of active support, scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, and Ross, 1976). The term scaffolding refers to a process in which a more knowledgeable person models or demonstrates how to solve a problem. After modelling he/she steps back but offers support as needed to those learning the skill (McLeod, 2012). Scaffolding works by changing the level of support as a learner gains competence in doing a task. It is often used to help the learner attain the upper limits of their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

Bruner was contented that we learn best in a social environment, where we construct meaning through interaction with others. This is in support of paired reading to develop oral reading fluency. We learn more in the presence of a knowledgeable other person. The zone of proximal development is “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, as cited by McLeod, 2019). The distance between doing something independently and doing it with the help of another, indicated stages of development. This development may not be the same in all people. When a child is involved in his own learning, then he or she has attained the goal of ZPD. Within this zone the child should not be a mere passive receiver of the adult teaching. Similarly, the teacher should not be simply a model of expert, successful behaviour, instead the teacher engages in joint problem-solving activity, by both sharing knowledge and responsibility for the work.

In teaching scaffolding refers to a process in which a teacher models or demonstrates how to solve a problem, and then steps back, giving support as needed. When using scaffolding, level of support keeps changing to suit the cognitive potential of the child.  More support is given when a child is having difficulty with a particular task and later, less support is provided as the child makes gains on the task.

Thus, the teacher should give the possible help to the children through a number of different fluency teaching methods and activities (instructional practices). Among the many scaffolding methods include modelled reading, choral reading, shared or pair reading and repeated reading. The teacher will do all these until the learner is able to do the activity on his or her own.

It is worthwhile to note that the learner has to play his/her role during the modelling by the teacher. As the learner repeats what the teacher has modelled, shares with other learners in whole class, group or pairs, participation must be high. In such a way, the cognitive theory of learning is fulfilled that states ‘Learning takes place in problem solving situation where a learner draws his/her past experiences and existing knowledge to discover facts, relationship and new truth to learn’ by Jerome Bruner (McLeod, 2019).

This study is guided by the theory of scaffolding by Jerome Bruner of 1976 that states ‘When learners are given the support they need while learning something new; they stand a better chance of using that knowledge independently’ (Belland, 2014; Mahan, 2020; McLeod, 2018).

1.16 Conceptual framework

Instructional practices (IV)                                                           Oral Reading Fluency (DV)

(EV)

Figure (i) Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework gives the relationship of teacher’s instructional practices and the teaching of ORF. These practices have to be applied right from the preparation stage. In planning he/she has to consider the content to be covered together with the activities to develop these competences.

The methods the teacher will use will have an effect on the development of reading fluency. Scaffolding methods will be of much help to move the learner to the required levels of ORF.

Assessment of learner’s achievement during teaching should be regular and have immediate feedback.

1.17 Operation definition of terms

Accuracy is used to mean reading with correctness the actual words that are in the text.

Assessment is the process of getting information from the learners that can help improve learning. It is done by the teacher observing and analysing the learner’s work to enable make changes for better results (Amua-Sekyi, 2016).

Automaticity means to complete a task with ease and successfully without giving thought to the sub processes which are involved. Automaticity in reading will mean the reader identifies letters and their corresponding sounds accurately and quickly while recognising correct spelling to decode the words.

Formative assessment will be used to mean the daily activities the teacher uses to measure the learner’s achievement. These activities are done during teaching and learning and usually have immediate feedback from the teacher that helps the learners to improve learning.

Government aided primary schools sometimes called public schools are the schools where tuition is paid by the government through the Universal Primary Education (UPE) programme.

Instructional practices are used to includes preparation for teaching, teaching procedures and assessment that are done with the intention of improving learner performance through teaching. In this research instructional practices will mean methods and techniques the teachers use to help learners reach their zone of proximal distance.

Local language shall be used to mean an indigenous language commonly used in the community. This is the language used by most people in that area.

Native language shall mean the mother tongue of individuals. It is the first language one acquires to speak. It can be called an inborn language.

Oral reading fluency (ORF) shall mean the ability to read a text aloud with accuracy, speed and proper expression. Fluent reading is the basis for reading comprehension.

Prosody shall be used to refer to reading a text smoothly, effortlessly and with proper phrasing and expression. This is the melody of speaking that helps to get meaning from the read text.

Refresher courses and Continuous Professional Development (CPD) courses will be used interchangeably. These are short courses arranged mostly at school level to address teachers’ needs or challenges they face during day to day teaching. A session of CPD may last two hours to a day.

School based refresher courses in this study will mean continuous professional development courses (CPDs) organised, facilitated and conducted at the school level.

Struggling learners shall refer to learners having difficulties in reading. Such learners include those who are unable to decode words easily and those who lack the appropriate reading speed.

Chapter Two

RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter a review of related literature will be given on teacher’s instructional practices and pupils’ oral reading fluency. It will highlight literature based on the stated objectives.

2.2 Teacher’s preparation practices and pupils’ oral reading fluency

Teaching and learning in schools are major roles of the teachers. It starts with preparation for teaching that includes getting the content to be covered, activities to be done and the materials that will be needed to aid teaching and learning (Nurie, 2017). Preparation involves identifying and selecting the best methods to be used in lesson presentation, classroom organisation together with activities learners will do (Kyriacou, 2007; Siraj-Blatchford et al, 2011). The teacher plans allocation of resources whether each learner will get one or they are to be used in groups. Setting the objectives or competences, reviewing the previous knowledge and how to manage time are all considered. All these are measured by the availability of schemes of work and lesson plans. Preparation for teaching is one of the indicators of teacher’s instructional practices. It impacts on teacher’s teaching and learner’s learning in the classroom. Despite the usefulness of preparation in teaching, no study has been made on preparation practices and ORF specifically in Runyoro-Rutooro in Kagadi town council.

During preparation the teacher plans for learner participation. Involving learners in lesson keeps their attention high and learning takes place as expected (Tian, 2017). This calls for creating an enabling environment that suits individual needs of learners. ORF develops when pupils are engaged by taking part in their own learning. The teacher should arrange varied activities which engage learners all the time. Such activities will include modelled reading, reading with children in large and small groups (choral reading), reading to each other in small groups and pairs and independent reading silently (Pikulski & Chard, 2015). To be successful, all these must be reflected during planning stage.

During planning, the teacher must put into consideration the materials learners will read during the lesson to develop oral reading fluency (Bennet, Gunn & Peterson, 2021). Accessibility will help in individualised reading that can be done every day even at leisure.

Teachers should prepare thoroughly what they will teach beforehand as a team. Consultations can be made on content, approaches and materials to use in advance. Teachers talking together about learners, teachers developing curriculum together, teachers observing one another teach, and teachers teaching one another will improve pupil’s oral reading fluency (Kilty & Burrows, 2022). Team work is also needed while preparing for assessment. Developing a content framework and test framework requires a concerted effort. No literature is available to show how such preparation relates with pupils’ ORF. Thus the reason to take up this study to find out what is the problem.

Planning to teach should be a cyclic process. After teaching the planned lesson there is need to reflect on what went on specifically on oral reading fluency. Good teachers constantly reflect on their teaching which helps them to make informed decisions (Beeman-Rygalski, 2014). Such teachers take responsibility of learning outcomes and are informed of the misconceptions learners may come up with through learner assessment which must also be planned for. Reflective practice helps future planning in reference to the previous outcomes.

2.3 Teacher’s teaching practices and the development of pupils’ oral reading fluency

Teaching practices include teaching methods and strategies employed to improve teaching. Methods like modelled reading, repeated reading, shared reading, choral reading and paired reading are some of the common and effective ones for teaching ORF (Cohen, 2011). The teacher uses procedures intentionally to improve learner performance through teaching (Francisco & Celon, 2020). It is basically used to mean the way teachers deliver lessons in classroom or simply put as the methods of teaching.

Methodology of teaching has an influence on pupils’ oral reading fluency. The method used has specific techniques the teachers follow in order to achieve set objectives. For instance, using phonemic awareness and letter knowledge in teaching, achieves more on pupils’ ORF than using other methods (Byrne et al, 2010).

Shanahan in The National Reading Panel (2005) found out that a number of different approaches are used in teaching ORF. Among the many were repeated reading, paired reading, echo reading, listening-while-reading, radio reading and model reading. All these methods and others not mentioned here had three characteristics in common; oral reading, repeated reading and immediate feedback (Paige, 2020; Zainab and Emad, 2020).

Repeated reading is one of the commonly used methods of teaching ORF (Cohen, 2011). In its operation a learner is given a text to read and reread aloud for two to four or more times. During this repeated reading a level of decoding speed and accuracy is attained in a short period of time (Cohen, 2011; Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018; Parenti & Chen, 2015; Pikulski & Chard, 2015). However, each practice should be given immediate feedback for modelling correct reading.  The gained skills can be applied to other reading texts even if they are a bit challenging. Feedback and corrective measures may also be given by way of recording the learner’s each reading practice (Parenti & Chen, 2015). This helps the learner to play back his own reading, make corrections appropriately, improving on pupils’ ORF.

Cohen (2011) refers oral repeated reading as a fun. He says it is easy to conduct and gives the reader the chance and ability to integrate the skills related to oral reading fluency. Printed language is easily associated to spoken language and it improves on the reading speed and rhythm (Rasinski, 2014). Repeated reading and pre-recorded texts develop pupils’ ORF.

Paired reading is also a technique used in the teaching of ORF. According to Cohen (2011), paired reading is related to repeated reading. However, the former goes an extra mile in self- and peer-assessment. They both emphasise pronunciation and prosody. Prosody deals with variation of loudness, pitch and rhythm which can be simply termed as expression (Overstreet, 2014; Rasinski, 2014). The teacher should put learners in pairs to read to each other a given text. The text should be based on learnt works to ease reading and correction of each other’s mistakes (Pikulski & Chard, 2015; Shanahan, 2005). As paired reading goes on, the teacher monitors progress to give assistance in case of difficulty. The researcher wishes to establish how teachers are getting on with this methodology in teaching ORF.

Besides paired reading the teacher uses partner reading method (Cohen, 2011). Several learners read a given text together as the struggling readers get support from peers with no reading difficult. They read and listen to partners who give them support in reading the difficult parts (MoES, 2014; Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018).

ORF is also taught through echo reading (Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018; Pikulski & Chard, 2015). Echo reading takes place when new text is introduced. The teacher reads through the text first as a way of modelling reading. Pupils then read the text after the teacher (MoES, 2014; Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018). It is used to model good reading.

Choral reading method is when learners read the text together with the teacher. The teacher’s voice helps learners in reading the difficult parts MoES, 2014; Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018). In this case the teacher models the ORF that he wants the learners to adapt. This is another area to investigate in this study.

Another method for teaching ORF is the reading theatre (Cohen 2011). This technique allows learner to read a story as if they are acting it. It differs from drama as pupils have no costumes and props and there is no memorisation of the texts. Each pupil reads the assigned script as if is actually acting it. It develops oral reading fluency as the teacher comments, guides and gives modelled reading. It increases self-confidence in reading thus developing pupils’ ORF.

For all the methods to work effectively, the teacher should not forget her/his role of modelling (Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018). At each point he should be ready to make corrections by guided reading that models the practice. Model reading works with all methods that are used to teach oral reading fluency.

2.4 Teacher’s assessment practices and the development of pupils’ oral reading fluency

Assessment is an important factor to the improvement of learning (Amua-Sekyi, 2016; Monteiro, Mata & Santos, 2021), particularly oral reading fluency. It is carried out to see what learners understand and are able to do. Assessment is very important for tracking progress, planning next steps, reporting and involving parents and children in learning.

Assessment can be formative or summative (Amua-Sekyi, 2016; Monteiro, Mata & Santos, 2021). Both of them gather information on teaching and learning process. However, formative assessment aims at monitoring learning to provide on-going feedback that can be used by teachers to improve pupils’ oral reading fluency. Through monitoring learning the teacher can find out whether a learner is doing well or needs help. Immediate and meaningful feedback is then given. This is done as an ongoing process that helps in adjusting teaching (Black & William, 1998). Oral reading fluency requires an assessment which is diagnostic and is carried out as assessment for learning. Teachers are encouraged to assess ORF even though informal methods are used (Kim, Park & Wagner, 2014).

As ORF is taught, it must be assessed. Each part of reading fluency can be assessed informally by the teacher. Using graded level texts, a percentage of decoding proficiency, automaticity (Paige, 2020), can be calculated by considering number of correct words read per minute (WCPM) (Rasinski, 2004). Accuracy should be at the level of 90%. Help should be given to a learner with more errors in form of repeated practice. Learners below 20-30% level of accuracy requires extra instruction.

Another aspect of ORF is prosody. It refers to reading with smoothness and expression. To assess prosody a rubric is used to score the readers expression and volume, phrasing, smoothness and pace (Rasinski, 2004; Sinambela, 2017). A multidimensional fluency scale developed by Rasinski is adopted in this case. Readers who score poorly are considered at risk in that particular aspect of reading fluency. More help should be given to them.

Assessment that is effective requires immediate feedback. Modelled reading by the teacher or a peer can provide immediate correction in each aspect of ORF (Rasinski, 2004). It is aimed at improving ORF in classroom teaching though it is informal (Mellard, Woods & Fall, 2011).

Assessment uses tools to establish the level of achievement. They include WCPM tests, observation, taking notes and rubrics. In assessing ORF, reading texts or passages are used. They include poetry, scripts, speeches, monologues, dialogues, jokes and riddles (Rasinski, 2004).

A number of reports on ORF in Kagadi is place. Unfortunately, no report highlights on how teachers assess prosody. This is a big gap in literature.

Chapter Three

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This part of the study outlines the procedures to be followed during the conduct of the study. It highlights the design and the location of the study. Methods to be used, sampling techniques, data collection instruments, analysis and measures of variables will be discussed.

3.2 Research design

This research will be guided by the Quasi-Experimental research design. This design is expected to maximise rigour and to yield valuable evidence on the intervention of teacher’s instructional practices on the teaching of ORF as it has higher degree of internal validity control. The non- equivalent comparison group design will be followed with Treatment and Comparison groups subjected to pre and post-test to maintain validity.

3.3 Methodology

This research will be guided by the mixed research methods. Both qualitative and quantitative methods will be used. It will be quantitative as data on pupils’ reading fluency will be collected by use of experimental methods, pre-test and post-test. A treatment on teacher’s instructional practices will be conducted after the pre-test of the sampled learners. A comparison group will be used to ascertain the effect of the intervention.

The researcher will organise and conduct three CPDs of two hours a day for three consecutive days in a central place for the teachers in the treatment group. The content to be covered will include how to plan reading texts and to include activities that develop ORF in the lesson plan. Teacher reading aloud to model the reading, children reading to one another in pairs, children reading after the teacher and children reading together with teacher form activities. In such reading, emphasis will be put on correct decoding of words, correct punctuation marks, phrasing of statements and the speed of reading all through repeated reading, choral and paired reading. Assessment of ORF during teaching will also be included. As children listen to teacher and their peers read, self-correction can be done. Teachers will be guided on how to model reading and to use a multidimensional fluency scale to assess ORF. Follow up support supervision will be done once every two weeks for a period three months. Only two teachers will be supported a day each lasting for two hours following the clinical supervision model. Thereafter, a post-test for both groups will be conducted to establish the effect of treatment that will include preparation, lesson presentation and assessment of prosody.

3.4 Study location

This study will be carried out in Kagadi T/C, Kagadi district in public primary schools. The Town Council has nine public primary schools and over twenty privately owned primary schools. This area is selected because no any research study on teacher’s instructional practices and pupils’ ORF has ever been done here. In addition to this, the level of reading fluency both in old and young is low despite interventions received to improve reading in general.

3.5 Population

This study will include all the teachers of P3 in the nine-government aided primary schools in Kagadi T/C. More to these are all the pupils in primary three classes in the T/C. Government aided schools have been selected as they use Runyoro-Rutooro as the medium of instruction. Private schools are adamant to this policy.

3.6 Sample size

Fox, Hunn and Mathers, (2009) and Singh & Masuku (2014), advise researchers to use a larger sample size to avoid errors in hypotheses. Based on the above, the sample size will be 264 participants from a population of 759 people as guided by the table for determining the sample size by Krejcie and Morgan (1970). It will include eight teachers and 256 pupils from the eight schools. For each school, 32 pupils of P3 class will be sampled in equal proportions of boys and girls. Treatment will be done in four schools while the other four will form the comparison group. Selection of treatment and comparison schools will be done by random sampling.

Summary of sample size                                                                                                               

Table (i) summary of sample size.

3.7 Sampling techniques

Schools to participate in this study will be selected by random sampling. After selecting the schools, teachers will be selected by purposive sampling. Sampling of children will depend on sex first. From each of the sex, random sampling will be used to select participants for both the treatment and comparison groups.

3.8 Data collection Instruments

Data of this study will be collected by using a number of tools or instruments. Pre-test and post test tools will be used with all learners in the sample. Document analysis will be used to collect data on preparation for teaching. Observation guide will aid in the collection of data from classroom teachers observed during teaching. For the authenticity of data to be collected, the researcher will administer these tools himself.

3.9 Measurement

A frequency Likert scale of five values will be used to measure teachers’ methodology and activities used in teaching. It will help to match what is expected to what is done. Each attribute in preparation will be matched with what the teacher has done. The Likert scale will then be used to ascertain where the practice falls according to standard. The instruments to be used to collect data will be measured to test for validity and reliability.

3.10 Validity

Test of instrument validity will be done through guidance of language/research experts. Their expertise in reviewing items will help me ascertain that the instrument measures what it is intended to measure.  The text to be used in pre and post testing will be checked for statements, phrasing, punctuation marks, intonation, stress and wording used. This will bring out content validity, the measure of the subject content (Gay, 2012). A recommendation of this team at a content validity value of 0.7 will be considered as valid (Grounder, 2012).

3.11 Reliability

The reliability of instruments will be measured through test and re-test method. A sample selected from centres not in the selected CC, will be used and the instrument tested and re-tested for a consistent score value of at least 0.7 (Amin, 2005). The passage (text) will be piloted by administering and re-administering it to help test for consistency. Adjustments will be done as need arises.

3.12 Data collection procedure

Data will be collected by use of pre-test and post-test from pupils. A pre-test will be administered to all learners sampled. A pre-training classroom teaching observation for teacher in the sample will be done. Teachers in the treatment group will be taken through CPDs on the methodology of teaching and assessing ORF. Clinical support supervision will be conducted as follow up to enhance skill development for teachers in the treatment group. At least each teacher will be supported twice a month for three months during the normal teaching of a reading lesson. Basically, the reading part of the lesson will be observed. Later a post test will be conducted to both groups and the mean difference noted. It will be used to establish the effect of treatment conducted. The researcher intends to carry out data collection by himself to avoid mismanagement of tools leading to faulty data.

In addition to pre-post-test, each learner will be assessed using a Multidimensional Fluency Scale to emphasise prosody.

3.13 Data presentation and analysis

Data collected will be edited, categorised, coded and computerised for preparations of tables and diagrams as guided by Ahuja (2001). Tables will be used to determine the distribution. Objective to establish the relationship between teacher’s instructional practices and the development of pupils’ ORF in Runyoro-Rutooro will be analysed using the difference method; post-test – pre-test (Fancher, 2010). Mean for treatment and comparison groups and standard deviation will be used to determine effect on performance on pre-post test results. The hypothesis there is relationship between teacher’s instructional practices and the teaching of ORF will be assessed by a t-test.

Objective to investigate teacher’s preparation practices to improve pupils’ ORF in Runyoro-Rutooro, data collected will be analysed using descriptive analysis.

The objective to establish how teachers, assess prosody to develop pupils’ ORF will also be analysed using descriptive analysis. This will be followed by making inferences and drawing conclusions.

3.14 Ethical considerations

The researcher will get an introduction letter from the school of Education, Kyambogo University. It will introduce him to district officials where the research is to be conducted.

Permission to conduct a study in these schools will be sought from the District Education Officer (DEO). This permission will introduce the researcher to the head teachers who in turn will introduce him to the teachers.

The researcher will seek consent from the sampled teachers by filling a consent form. One will be free to exit at will. Rule of confidentiality will be adhered to. Consent and assent for the pupils will be guided by their class teachers. Confidentiality will be maintained by use anonymous scripts but with identification signals understood by the researcher only (Clacherty and Donald, 2007). Both pre-test and post-test will be in Runyoro –Rutooro the local language and medium of instruction.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Text to be used in pre and post-test for ORF at P3 class

Omuntu ojunwa ekyawe

Ekiro kimu, nkaba ndi haisomero omu kizaaniro ninzaana na bagenzi bange. Ensahu yange ey’ebitabu yabura. Nkagenda omw’omwegesa namugambira nti, “Ensahu yange ey’ebitabu ebuzire.” Omwegesa yagarukamu nti, “Tugende nkukoonyere tugiserre.” Tukaserra hoonahoona ensahu yaburra kimu. Obunataahire omuka nkabanza natiina kugambira Mukaaka. Baitu uwe akandora yamanya nti nyine ekintuntwize. Akankaguza, “Ayesiga obaireki?” namugarukamu nincura nti, “Ensahu yange eyebitabu ebuzire!” Mukaaka akankaguza ati, “Hati okugenda kwiha nkaha sente ezindi zokugura ebitabu nekalaamu?” Hakaba hataroho kitungwa kyoona eky’okutunda. Nkatuntura muno.

Nkagumya nintuga ekiteekerezo nakaguza Mukaaka nti, “Baitu Mukaaka omu musiri kaliyo enjagi nyingi, titusobora kutundaho tukaihamu sente?” Mukaaka yagarukamu ati, “Gyayo orole.” Nkagyayo nasanga ziriyo nyingi muno buli kikoro nikinaina. Nkeeta Mukaaka aije arole. Obuyarozire obwingi bw’enjagi yatenga ati, “Ee mawe, enjagi zange kazasiisikara!” nanyowe nagarukamu nti, “Mali zagya kusiisikara, dora n’ezindi zitandikire kwenga.” Na Mukaaka yagamba ati, “Genda oleete akagega tuzinoge.” Tukanoga enjagi akagega kaijura. Naleeta ebiibo bibiri nabyo byaijura. Nazipakiira omu katutiya. Obwire nibukya nkahurra Mukaaka naanyeta ngu, ‘Iwe Ayesiga, okyabyamire, oyeberwe omulimo guturaire nagwo!”

Adopted from Nsobora Kusoma Nokuhandiika, P3 Teacher’s Guide, Runyoro-Rutooro pg 171.

Literary description of the Pre-post-test text

You are liberated by your possessions

One day, I was at school in the playground playing with my peers. My school bag got lost with all its contents. I went to the teacher and told him, ‘My school bag is lost.’ The teacher answered, “Let us go and I help you to find it.” We searched everywhere for the bag but in vain. When I went back home, I was afraid to tell my grandmother. She however saw me worried and suspected something to have happened. She asked me, ‘Ayesiga, what happened to you?’ I answered her in tears, “My school bag is lost.” Grandmother asked, ‘where are you going to get the money from to buy other books and pencils?’ there was nothing to sell at that time. I was greatly disturbed.

Suddenly, an idea came to my mind. I told her ‘We have plenty of eggplant fruits in the garden, can’t we sell some to get money?’ ‘Go and check,’ she told me. I went and found plenty of them ready. I called her to come and see. She was amazed at the many fruits she saw, ‘won’t all these be wasted!’ ‘Sure! They are soon getting wasted.’ She ordered me get a basket to collect all of them. We collected and filled the basket. I collected more two baskets and they were filled. I put all in a gunny bag. Early in the morning I heard her calling me, ‘Ayesiga, you have forgotten the task we had last evening!’

Appendix 2: Observation for classroom teaching observation

                                                      OBSERVATION FORM

School ID………………Teacher ID…………………… Class……Date…………..

1. PREPARATION
2. a) Scheme of work (Detailed and completeness) ……………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
3. b) Lesson plan (Detailed, regularity, completeness, assessment shown) ……………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………
4. c) Instructional/ Reading materials to use(Appropriate) …………..…………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. LESSON PRESENTATION
6. a) Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

1. b) Methods and activities during teaching

3. ASSESSMENT

WAY FORWARD/ACTION TO BE TAKEN

Supervisor…………………………………         Teacher……………………………………

Name………………………………………          Name ……………………………………

Adapted from school practice supervision form of Kyambogo University and Rasinski 2004.

Appendix 3: Checklist; Preparation for teaching

Appendix 4: Multidimensional Fluency Scale

Adopted from Rasinski (2004) and Morrison and Wilcox, (2020) for assessing prosody