CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This section describes what other scholars have written about the study in relation to the objectives of the study; the various forms of communication used in organizations, the strategies used in communication by organizations and the strategies how operational efficiency can be used.

2.1 Various forms of communication used in organizations

Intra-personal Communication

Intra-personal Communication is the kind of communication that occurs within us. It involves thoughts, feelings, and the way we look at ourselves. Because intra-personal communication is centered in the self, human beings themselves are the only sender-receiver. The message is made up of someone’s thoughts and feelings. The channel is the brain, which processes what one are thinking and feeling. There is feedback in the sense that one talks to themselves, or discard certain ideas and replace them with others. Even though one are not directly communicating with others in intra-personal communication, the people and the experiences one has determine how they talk to themselves (Welch, & Preti, 2019).

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication occurs when we communicate on a one-to-one basis usually in an informal, unstructured setting.  This kind of communication occurs mostly between two people, though it may include more than two. Interpersonal communication uses all the elements of the communication process. In a conversation between friends, for example, each brings his or her back ground and experience to the conversation. Outing the conversation each functions as a sender – receiver. Their message consists of both verbal and non-verbal symbols. The channels they use the most are sight and sound. Because interpersonal communication is between two (or a few) people, it offers the greatest opportunity for feedback. Psychological noise is likely to be minimal because each person can see whether the other is distracted. The persons involved in the conversation have many chances to check that the message is being perceived correctly. Interpersonal communication usually takes place in informal and comfortable settings (Abubeker, 2019).

Small-Group Communication

Small – group communication occurs when a small number of people meet to solve a problem. The group must be small enough so that each member in the group has a chance to interact with all of the other members. Because small groups are made up of several senders-receivers, the communication process is more complicated than in interpersonal communication. With so many more people sending messages, there are more chances for confusion. Messages are also more structured in small groups use the same channels as interpersonal communication, however, and there is also a good deal of opportunity for feedback. In view of their problem – solving nature, small groups usually meet in a more formal setting than people involved in interpersonal communication (Szczur, 2019).

Public Communication

In public communication the sender-receiver (the speaker) sends a message (the speech) to an audience. The speaker usually delivers a highly structured message, using the same channels as in interpersonal and small-group communication.  In public communication, however, the channels are more exaggerated than in interpersonal communication. The voice is louder and the gestures are more expansive because the audience is bigger.  The speaker might also use additional visual channels such as slides, flip charts, and so on. Generally, the opportunity for verbal feedback in public communication is limited. The audience members may have a chance to ask questions at the end of the speech, but usually they are not free to address the speaker as he or she is talking. However, they can send nonverbal feedback. If they like what the speaker is saying, they may interrupt the speech with applause. If they like what the speaker is saying, they may interrupt the speech with applause. If they dislike it, they may move around a lot of simply stop paying attention. In most public communication the setting is formal (Mileti, & Fitzpatrick, 2019).

Non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication includes the gestures, facial expressions, movements of arts, etc., which make our communication more effective (Valentini, M., Mancini, M., Raiola, G., & Federici, A. (2019).

Actions

A direct form of communication which traditionally speaks louder than words but which uses words as well as every conceivable body movement in the human repertoire and every object or device in the environment is action. Consequential communication involves action. Sometimes, moreover, action is a form of purposive communication, the action achieves the social goal, as when a murderer is executed to convey to people the punishment associated with a particular crime. Almost any action can be subtly interpreted by people who have been taught its meaning. More often than not actions are difficult to interpret, especially when communicator and audience come from different cultures (Adamson, 2018).

Appearance

On days when you are going to make a speech it is a good idea to look your best. Not only does looking good give you a psychological boost, has it also given the audience a positive impression of you. Looking your best doesn’t necessarily mean dressing up in your best clothes. If you wear a suit and he, for example, and everyone else is wearing T-shirts and jeans, you are going to stand out a little two obviously.  Looking your best means wearing the top of the line of what every one else is wearing. Changes in the appearance of the human body are deliberately produced for the sake of communicating information. The communicator is considered to be the person on whose body the changes occur. The appearance of the human body may be permanently affected by the removal of one of its parts, such as an arm, an eye, a finger, the genitals, a foot, the nose, one or more teeth, or the tongue (Parasuraman, 2019)

Use of Objects

Physical objects other than buildings that protect people, tools, and decorations and insignia upon the body are also extending media. The boundary between the objects being considered here and those previously considered is thin and almost indistinguishable, but worth retaining. For there is a difference between a building used as a dwelling and one used as a tomb; between a hoe and a ceremonial baton; and between a ribbon on the chest and a flag upon a pole.

Paralanguage

In contrast to kinesic behaviour, which relates to bodily movements we see, paralanguage relates to the sounds we hear. Paralanguage concerns how something is said, not what is said. We have all developed some sensitivity to the clues people give through their voices. Let’s consider two major categories of paralanguage.

Voice qualities

The four major qualities or characteristics of voice are pitch (highness or lowness of tone), volume (loudness), rate (speed), and quality (the sound of the voice). Each of these, by itself or in concert with one or more others, complements, supplements, or contradicts the words used. People talk loudly when they wish to be heard over greater distances, but some people also talk louder when they are angry and softer when they are being loving. People tend to raise and lower their pitch to accompany changes in volume. They may also raise pitch when they are nervous or lower pitch when they are trying to be forceful. People may talk more rapidly when they are happy, frightened, or nervous; they will talk more slowly when they are unsure or trying to emphasize a point.

Touch

Touch is often considered the most basic form of communication and, as such, is a fundamental aspect of self- presentation.  Some people use their hands to pat, slap, pinch, stroke, hold, embrace, and tickle. Usually, we use these and other touching behaviors for a variety of reasons, from impersonal and random to very intimate and purposeful. We shake hands to be social and polite, we pat a person on the back for encouragement, and we hug a person to show love.

2.2 strategies used in communication by organizations

In the past few decades, the role of strategies in supporting business success has received growing attention from scholars and business practitioners (Porter, 2008). Strategies, as a series of action plans based on long-term business objectives, serve as essential tools that help firms adapt to the changing business environment (Hill, Jones, Galvin, & Haidar, 2007). According to Chathoth and Olsen (2007), there is a close relationship between the profitability of a business and its ability to respond effectively to changes by minimizing arising threats and maximizing opportunities. Thompson, Strickland, and Gamble (2010) also state that well-crafted strategies play a vital role in providing an organization with a sense of direction. Organizational members who have a good understanding of strategies in their particular domain are likely to make better decisions and to coordinate their activities with others more effectively and efficiently (Huff, Floyd, Sherman, & Terjesen, 2009).

Even if communication strikes us as one the most important parts of a daily organizational routine, it always seems left in the shadow of other technical or more business oriented practices. Organizations choose to neglect communicational aspects of their professional practices by taking communicational acts for granted, considering the man element of habit in solving problems and managing team work. Living in an era where we are surrounded by a vast multitude of means of communication and the desire to transmit ideas to our interlocutors with every important piece of information we have, we would struggle to support the unimportance of communication habits. Society is based on social behaviour and on the action of socializing with other individuals, building connections between small or large communities and bringing together people with similar needs and aspirations. The same pattern can be applied to companies, where employees structure their relationship with the workplace by maintaining and developing social interactions with fellow co-workers. Communication, through its simplest form of existence, not only does it help the corporations to construct and preserve a productive friendly work environment, but it also creates a library of shared needs, values and attitudes among the workers (Weber & Stern, 2011).

Formal Types of Communication

The formal types of communication is also known as official communication. This type of communication is conducted through the pre-determined channel. Within one’s profession, the individuals need to communicate with number of individuals. These include, employers, supervisors, colleagues, clients etc. Formal communication forms the core of the professional lives of the individuals. In the effective implementation of this type of communication, there are various factors, which need to be taken into account. These include, purpose of communication, following the well-defined structure of knowing one’s audience, keeping the tone open and professional, taking into consideration the time limit and thanking the audience for listening. When the individuals are giving presentations or speeches, then they need to thank their audience for listening. Formal types of communication leads to adequate performance of job duties. Therefore, it is vital for the individuals to be well-aware of this type of communication in order to augment their professionalism and achieve organizational goals (Reynolds, Bostrom, Read, & Morgan, 2010).

Informal Types of Communication

Informal communication is put into operation within the organizations among colleagues as well as among superiors and subordinates. This type of communication is also known as unofficial or grapevine communication. The word-of-mouth information is regarded as the primary characteristic of this type of communication. The main features of this type of communication are, it is spontaneous and free-flowing without any formal protocol or structure. Hence, the level of accuracy and reliability is less in this type of communication. The individuals do not have to follow the rules or take into consideration, the time limit. In most cases, it is carried out orally and does not require document evidence. Informal communication is considered user-friendly and is advantageous to the individuals, when it is put into practice wisely. Within the organizations, when the individuals are carrying out this form of communication, they encourage positive ideas and expressions. As a result, they develop motivation towards their work. Therefore, informal types of communication are important in creating an amiable and pleasant working environmental conditions (Leiserowitz, Smith, & Marlon, 2010).

Oral Communication (Face-to-Face)

Oral communication that takes place face-to-face is regarded as most common and recognized type of communication. When the individuals are communicating with each other face-to-face, they aim that through words, they are able to express directly to others. This communication can be formal as well as informal. The individuals communicate face-to-face within the organizations with other members and outside the organizations, it takes place with family members, friends, relatives, community members etc. In face-to-face oral communication, there are various factors, which need to be taken into account. These include, maintaining eye contact, keep the tone and expressions decent, they need to suit the message that needs to be conveyed, one should not depict any negative feelings such as, anger and frustration and develop confidence. When the individuals are delivering lectures, speeches and presentations, they need to be confident and not depict any kind of vulnerability and apprehensiveness. When these factors are put into operation, the individuals are able to hone their oral communication skills, when communicating face-to-face (Li, Johnson, & Zaval,2011; Borick &Rabe, 2010).

Oral Communication (Distance)

Oral communication can take place among the individuals in an appropriate manner, when they are located at a distance. This communication is common and is an integral part of the lives of the individuals. In communicating orally with individuals, who are located at a distance, there are number of methods and technologies, which are utilized. These include, mobile phones, VOIP, video-conferencing, 2-way webinars and so forth. These are regarded as modern and innovative methods, through which oral communication can be promoted among individuals, when they are located at a distance. In the effective implementation of this type of communication, tone of voice and pace of delivery are regarded as crucial. The important factors that need to be taken into account in promoting oral communication at a distance are, listening, speaking slowly, reiterating the information that is understood and keeping the tone of voice open and receptive. In some cases, when the individuals are unable to understand the concepts and other information clearly through oral communication, they may ask to send them through email (McCright, 2009; McCright & Dunlap, 2011).

Written Communication

Written communication is the type of communication that takes place in a written form. The common forms of written communication are letters, notices, emails, messages, advertisements and so forth. When the information is lengthy and comprise of images, pictures, charts, graphs, statistical data and so forth, then it cannot be imparted orally to the individuals. In such cases, written communication is regarded as one of the indispensable ways of imparting information. When the individuals are to send documents and reports, then they simply get them scanned and send them through email. When the individuals are communicating with each other in a written form, they need to take into account various factors, these include, addressing appropriately, making use of decent words, stating the information in a clear and understandable manner, stating all the necessary concepts and concluding well by saying thank you and putting the name and signatures. In order to implement written communication in an effective manner, it is vital for the individuals to up-grade their skills in terms of various forms of technologies. When they are well-equipped in terms of usage of computers, lap-tops, I pads and mobile technologies, they will be able to carry out written communication satisfactorily (Leiserowitz, Smith, &Marlon, 2010),.

Non-Verbal Type of Communication

Non-verbal type of communication is more subtle. It takes place in the daily lives of the individuals as well as within organizational structures. In the implementation of this form of communication, there are number of factors that need to be taken into consideration. These include facial expressions, gestures, body language, eye contact, touch, space and the personality of the individuals. In this type of communication, there are three important features, which need to be identified. These are, what is said with words, what is shared with postures and gestures and the feelings of the individuals influence the messages and information that is imparted. The non-verbal information cues, the way one looks, listens, moves and reacts convey to the individuals that one is communicating with whether or not they are concerned. Furthermore, it is vital for the individuals to impart truthful information. The five roles of non-verbal communication are, repetition, contradiction, substitution, complementing and accenting (Nonverbal Communication, 2019). In order to bring about improvements in non-verbal type of communication, one of the significant aspects is, the individuals need to curb the psychological problems of anger, stress, frustration, depression and anxiety. Furthermore, they need to form a constructive approach and possess an approachable nature. When the individuals are able to augment these factors, they are able to enhance non-verbal types of communication.

Grapevine Communication

Grapevine is regarded as the form of informal communication. It takes place both in the internal as well as external informal channels, which lead to effective functioning and benefit of the organization. Research has indicated that in various types of organizations, the individuals do not follow any systematic process of communication, but it takes place among individuals without following any prescribed or predetermined rules. Through the grapevine, information flows in different directions, establishing connections between various aspects of the organization. This type of communication is governed by social and personal relationships, rather than any recognized rules and formalities. Grapevine operates in internal and external informal channels. Through this form of communication, the individuals pass rumours, opinions and suspicions that generally do not move through formal channels. Pleasant and amiable environmental conditions within the organizations are essential in developing the sense of belongingness among the individuals. In this manner, they are able to work in collaboration with each other, obtain support and assistance and incur the feeling of job satisfaction. Within organizations, there are number of situations, issues and concerns, regardless of their size and nature. The presence of grapevine is more a product of the situation than it is to the person (Grapevine Communication, 2017).

Feedback Communication

When the individuals, who are in leadership positions in educational institutions and in various forms of organizations, such as, instructors, supervisors, heads, directors, employers and so forth, put into operation various types of assessment methods to evaluate the performance of the individuals. After evaluating the performance, they provide them feedback in terms of their performance. Hence, the communication that takes place is termed as feedback communication. The main objective of feedback communication is to make provision of support and assistance to the individuals to overcome the limitations and bring about improvements. In the implementation of feedback communication in an efficient manner, these individuals need to take into account various factors, these include, inculcating the traits of morality and ethics, being honest and truthful, following the standards and principles and giving constructive criticism. When the individuals experience set-backs in their performance, then limitations need to be identified in a constructive manner. Furthermore, the individuals, in leadership positions need to make provision of help, support and assistance to their students and employees to identify the inconsistencies and bring about improvements. Therefore, within educational institutions at all levels and various types of organizations, this type of communication is regarded as crucial and beneficial (Weber &Stern, 2011).

Visual Communication

Visual communication is also the type of communication that is common in the daily lives of the individuals. The main areas through which visual communication takes place is through televisions, radios, social networking and so forth. When the individuals are watching television or listening to radio programs, then also they are engaged in a form of communication. In some cases, they are not only utilising these for leisure and recreational purposes, but they are also augmenting their knowledge and understanding in terms of various aspects. When the individuals are communicating with others, then in most cases, their objective is to enhance their knowledge and understanding. Therefore, through some television shows and radio programs as well, the individuals are able to augment their knowledge and understanding. Facebook is visual with the use of memes, videos, images and so forth. Instagram is the only image platform, and the advertisers make use of this platform to market their products (Five Types of Communication, 2018). The images that are posted on social media have the major purpose of conveying the meaning and communicating the message. The individuals are engaged in communications throughout the day. In other words, it takes place on a continuous basis. Therefore, visual communication is also one of the important types of communication.

Active Listening

Active listening is regarded as one of the types of communication that is of utmost significance. It is regarded as the type of communication and it is also an important characteristic that needs to be put into operation in order to make the communication processes effective and meaningful. When the individuals are implementing this form of communication, they are able to benefit in number of ways. These include, acquiring an efficient understanding of the concepts, providing solutions to problems that one experiences in the implementation of job duties, clarifying doubts, augmenting awareness, and able to achieve the desired goals. In addition, when one actively listens to others, they are able to create amiable terms and relationships with them and generate the feelings of pleasure and contentment. Within educational institutions, when the instructors are imparting information in terms of lesson plans and academic concepts, when the supervisors and managers are imparting information in terms of job duties, when there are organization of workshops, seminars and conferences and when the individuals are engaged in oral communication, whether face-to-face or distance, then it is vital for them to promote active listening. Therefore, it can be stated, when one satisfactorily puts into operation this form of communication, they are able to benefit in number of ways (Weber and Stern (2011).

Communication through Sign Languages

Sign languages are the native languages of the deaf community and make provision of complete access to communication. Although, the sign languages are made use of in most cases by the individuals, who suffer from hearing impairments. When they cannot hear others, then communication takes place with them through the use of sign languages. On the other hand, the individuals, who are mute, they can hear but cannot speak also make use of sign languages. In fact, there are about 138 to 300 different types of sign languages, used throughout the world. New sign languages frequently evolve among the groups of deaf children and adults. Sign languages are regarded as verbal as they contain words and sentences. When the individuals are making use of sign languages, they are communicating, just like others, who use their voices to speak. When the individuals, who suffer from hearing impairments and are mute make use of sign languages, they are able to communicate efficiently with others. Therefore, this language has been regarded as beneficial to these individuals (Reynolds et al. (2010).

Sign languages are regarded as the visual means of communication. These involve making use of gestures, hand movements, body language and facial expressions to communicate with other individuals. Through these traits, the individuals give and receive information. When oral communication is not possible or desirable, then the individuals make use of sign languages in communicating. The practice of using sign languages is older than speech. Sign languages may be expressed as mere indicating or they may take into consideration, combination of coded manual signals reinforced by facial expressions and perhaps augmented by the words spelled out in manual alphabets. Wherever, vocal communication is not possible between the individuals, they communicate with each other through sign languages (Leiserowitz et al., 2010).

The Indian sign language was codified by use into an explicit vocabulary of gestures, representing or depicting objects, actions and ideas, but it made an attempt to spell out or otherwise represent the words that cannot be conveyed by gestures. Several forms of sign languages were developed to enable the individuals to spell out the words and sounds. In most cases, these are regarded as complicated and flexible as compared to spoken languages. National Sign Language, such as, ASL have more in common with one another as compared to the spoken languages of their country of origin. The signs represent the concepts and not the words in any language, i.e. English, Japanese, French, German and so forth. Members of the religious orders, who have taken vows of silence, the other individuals, who for the reasons of piety or humility have forsworn speech, need to make use of sign languages. When the individuals ask for something, it is common that they may point to the objects and there is less use of sign languages (Sign Language, 2020).

Communicating through Facial Expressions

The human face is expressive to a major extent. Through facial expressions, one can express various kinds of feelings, without saying a word. Unlike some forms of non-verbal communication, facial expressions are universal. The facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, worry, stress, anxiety, fear and surprise are the same for all the individuals, irrespective of their categories and backgrounds. A facial expression is regarded as one or more emotions or positions of the muscles beneath the skin of the face. These are regarded as the form of non-verbal communication. They are regarded as the primary means of conveying information among individuals. Apart from human beings, facial expressions also occur in some animal species. The individuals usually form their facial expressions depending upon the situations that they are experiencing. It is recommended and vital for the individuals to keep normal and pleasant facial expressions, even when they are experiencing unfavorable situations (Reynolds et al., 2010).

It is necessary for all individuals to generate information in terms of aspects that need to be implemented to control one’s facial expressions. These are, ensuring that the face is relaxed and neutral, one should not possess any kinds of ill feelings against anybody, one should form positive thinking and a constructive approach towards life, when one is serious, one should not frown, learn to control the feelings of anger and frustration, possess an approachable nature, obtain feedback from others regarding facial expressions, reinforce positive aspects and eliminate limitations and negative aspects, implement agreeable attitude and put into practice the traits that are necessary to have normal facial expressions on a regular basis. There are individuals, technologies and various kinds of reading materials, through which individuals acquire information in terms of aspects needed to control one’s facial expressions. When the individuals learn to control facial expressions, they will be able to communicate effectively (Leiserowitz et al., 2010).

2.3 Strategies how operational efficiency can be used

According to Ajuwon, (2015) training employees in on new skills and Knowledge has become one of the most highly valued commodities in the modern economy. Further, knowledge is considered the principal tool of competitiveness and innovation in the composition of commodity chain to the broader processes of regional and national economic development. In line with Tarhini et al., (2015) the new paradigm is that, within the organization, knowledge must be shared in order for it to grow thus sharing knowledge among its management and staff grows stronger and becomes more competitive.

Some of the most significant changes are the growing importance of knowledge as a catalyst of economic growth within the global economy, the revolution of information and communication technology (ICT), the integration of the global labour market and worldwide socio-political transformations (Lwoga et al., 2016).

Access to and production of knowledge are essential prerequisite for participation in the global economy and the effectiveness in the performance of an organization as noted by (Lwoga et al., 2016)

Adoption of Information and communication technologies have significantly increased the speed of production, use and distribution of knowledge, thus making an organization  economic and social wellbeing dependant on how quickly it can adjust its capacity to share and generate knowledge.

Transformations brought to different firms as a result of information systems offer many potential opportunities for both developed and developing nations (Komba et al., 2016). However, on the negative side, they also pose serious threats, and especially for developing nations. There is ample evidence that processes of globalization and the ascent of Manuel Castell’s ‘Information Society’ have given rise to new problems, such as the growing knowledge gap and digital divide between the information rich and the information poor among and within nations.

Knowledge Management (KM) has attracted the attention of researchers over the last decade since it is considered an important tool to achieve innovation and sustainable competitive advantage  by organizations (Meeker, 2015). Takieddine & Sun (2015) noted that in highly unstable organizations the only sure source of lasting competitive advantage is knowledge.  Firms that adopt knowledge management practices perform better than competing firms that do not (Bayero, 2015), on the same line of thought, Ukachi, (2015) further asserts that knowledge management practices have been implemented in different industries both service and manufacturing to enhance better performance and increased output.

The adoption of computers in organizations is not a new phenomenon, Ahmadi (2013) asserts that in the 1970’s, its promoters claimed that it would transform and save organization unnecessary costs especially in training employees and also in the workforce required of an organization.

According to Ludeman & Erlanson, (2013) the late 1980’s saw a growing shift towards computer integration which emphasized the use of computers in most of the government’s daily work like the preparation of reports, accountability and monitoring of government projects which changed from manual to automated.

According to Busagala (2013) 1990’s saw a heightened focus on increasing the use of computer technology in Health, defence and Education departments of most governments across the globe., the author further notes that there is growing attention and pressure to implement technology in education, one of the most significant features of the technological or digital era of much relevance to education is the Internet.