FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO LOW REPRESENTATION OF FEMALE TEACHERS IN UPPER PRIMARY SECTION IN BULERA PRIMARY SCHOOLS, BULERA SUBCOUNTY MITYANA DISTRICT

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This chapter includes the introduction, background information, statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, objectives of the study, research questions, scope of the study, significance of the study, operational definition of key terms in the topic, limitations of the study and delimitations.

1.1  Background

Globally, research shows that the underrepresentation of female teachers in upper primary and higher levels of education is influenced by multiple interconnected factors. These include gender stereotypes, cultural perceptions of women’s roles, family responsibilities, and institutional barriers such as recruitment practices and limited career progression opportunities. According to UNESCO (2021), although women make up more than 60% of the global teaching workforce in primary education, their numbers significantly decline in upper primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. The disparity is often more pronounced in rural and conflict-affected areas, where gender norms are more rigid and infrastructural challenges limit female teacher retention.

At the continental level, Sub-Saharan Africa faces more acute gender disparities in education systems. Structural inequalities, early marriage, limited access to higher education, and lack of gender-sensitive policies contribute to the low number of female teachers in upper primary and above. The African Union’s Continental Education Strategy for Africa (CESA 2016–2025) recognizes the need for gender parity but acknowledges the persistent gap, particularly in the deployment and promotion of female teachers in higher primary and administrative positions. Data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics indicate that, in many African countries, male teachers dominate upper primary classes, especially in subjects perceived as “technical” or “challenging.”

Regionally, East African countries such as Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, and Uganda share similar challenges regarding the representation of female teachers in upper primary. Cultural expectations that assign domestic and childcare roles to women, along with the lack of female-friendly school environments such as inadequate maternity provisions, staff accommodation, or security in rural areas discourage women from accepting postings or promotions in upper primary schools. Moreover, the progression from lower to upper primary teaching roles often requires additional training or qualifications, which women may find difficult to pursue due to social or economic constraints.

In Uganda, the issue is particularly concerning. Despite efforts by the Ministry of Education and Sports to promote gender equity in education through policies such as the Gender in Education Policy (2009) and affirmative action in teacher training admissions, the representation of female teachers in upper primary schools remains disproportionately low. National data reveals a sharp decline in the number of female teachers from lower to upper primary levels, with male teachers dominating in Primary Five to Primary Seven. Contributing factors include limited access to in-service training for women, societal norms that discourage women from teaching older children, and the rural-urban divide, where female teachers are less likely to be posted or retained in remote areas. Additionally, female teachers often face challenges balancing professional demands with family responsibilities, which are intensified by inadequate support systems at the school and community levels.

In light of these challenges, this study seeks to explore the multifaceted factors contributing to the low representation of female teachers in the upper primary section, with a specific focus on the Ugandan context. Understanding these factors is crucial for informing gender-responsive policies and interventions aimed at promoting equity and inclusiveness in the education sector.

1.2 Problem statement

The low representation of female teachers in upper primary sections of Bulera Primary Schools, located in Bulera Sub-county, Mityana District, presents a significant educational and gender equity challenge. Despite national efforts to promote female participation in education, including Uganda’s Gender in Education Policy (2009), the transition of women from lower to upper primary teaching positions remains limited. This trend mirrors broader national and regional patterns where women, though forming the majority of the primary teaching workforce, are disproportionately underrepresented in upper primary levels particularly in rural and underserved areas. According to the Uganda National Examinations Board (UNEB, 2022), male teachers constitute more than 70% of the teaching staff in Primary Five to Seven in rural districts, illustrating the persistent gender imbalance.

In Bulera Sub-county specifically, preliminary school-level data and stakeholder interviews reveal that entrenched socio-cultural norms, such as the belief that teaching older pupils—especially boys is more suitable for male teachers, discourage female participation in upper classes. Furthermore, structural and institutional barriers—such as lack of promotion opportunities, limited female accommodation facilities, and inflexible school policies—have negatively affected the recruitment, retention, and promotion of female teachers in upper primary sections. Family-related responsibilities, including childcare and household obligations, further hinder female teachers from accepting or sustaining roles in upper primary levels, particularly in rural postings like Bulera where support systems are minimal, Additionally, the requirement for additional academic qualifications to teach in upper primary often excludes women who are unable to upgrade due to time, financial limitations, or lack of institutional support. According to the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES, 2021), more than 60% of female primary school teachers remain at Grade III certificate level, which limits their eligibility to teach upper classes that require higher pedagogical skills. Security concerns, especially for female teachers posted in isolated areas of Mityana District, also contribute to the reluctance to take up such roles.

Therefore, the problem this study seeks to address is the persistent low representation of female teachers in upper primary sections in Bulera Primary Schools, despite policy frameworks and affirmative actions aimed at gender parity. Understanding the interplay of socio-cultural, institutional, and personal barriers specific to the local context of Bulera is crucial in designing targeted strategies that support female teacher advancement and ensure inclusive educational development.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study is to investigate factors contributing to low representation of female teachers in upper primary section in Bulera Primary schools, Bulera Subcounty Mityana District

1.4 Objectives of the study

1. To examine the socio-cultural factors that influences the representation of female teachers in the upper primary section.
2. To assess institutional and policy-related barriers affecting the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools.

• To explore the personal and professional challenges that discourages female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions.

1.5 Research questions

1. What are the socio-cultural factors that influence the representation of female teachers in the upper primary section?
2. What are the institutional and policy-related barriers affecting the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools?

• What are the personal and professional challenges that discourage female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions?

1.6 Significance of study

The study is significant because it helps to uncover the root causes behind the gender imbalance in upper primary teaching positions. Despite the progress in gender parity in many education systems globally and in Uganda, female teachers remain underrepresented in upper primary sections. Understanding the factors contributing to this disparity whether they are personal, socio-cultural, institutional, or policy-related will provide stakeholders with evidence-based insights that can inform more inclusive recruitment and retention strategies. This research is therefore critical in promoting gender equity within the teaching profession and addressing systemic barriers that hinder women’s full participation.

Secondly, the findings from this study are essential for policymakers and education planners, especially within the Ministry of Education and Sports, as they design policies aimed at improving teacher distribution and gender responsiveness in the education sector. Identifying institutional gaps such as lack of promotion opportunities, gender-insensitive school environments, or absence of supportive infrastructure for female teachers can guide reforms and targeted interventions. These insights will contribute to the development of gender-sensitive frameworks that promote equal access to professional growth and participation for all teachers, regardless of gender.

Furthermore, the study will be useful for teacher training institutions and education NGOs working to empower female educators. By highlighting the challenges and perceptions that discourage women from teaching in upper primary, the research can support the design of capacity-building programs that address specific fears or limitations faced by aspiring female teachers. These may include mentorship programs, leadership training, and advocacy for improved working conditions particularly in rural or hard-to-reach schools where female presence is even more limited.

Finally, this study contributes to academic literature by providing updated, localized data on gender disparities in education staffing. While many global studies focus on female underrepresentation in leadership roles, less attention is given to the lower levels of representation in specific teaching categories such as upper primary. By focusing on this often-overlooked issue within the Ugandan context, the study fills a knowledge gap and sets a foundation for further research on gender dynamics in teacher deployment and professional sustainability. It can also serve as a comparative reference for similar studies in Sub-Saharan Africa and other developing regions.

1.7 Delimitations of the study

This study is delimited to examining the factors influencing the low representation of female teachers specifically in the upper primary section, rather than in lower primary, secondary, or tertiary education levels. Although gender disparities exist across all levels of education, the focus of this research is limited to Primary Five to Primary Seven within the Ugandan context, where the drop in female teacher numbers is most evident. This allows for a more detailed exploration of the unique challenges associated with upper primary teaching, such as content complexity and classroom management of older pupils, which are often perceived as barriers by female educators.

Secondly, the study is geographically delimited to selected schools within Uganda, with emphasis on both rural and urban public primary schools. It does not include private or international schools, which may have different teacher recruitment and retention dynamics. The reason for this boundary is to maintain a manageable scope and ensure contextual relevance to national education policies and public service structures, which are typically uniform across government-aided schools in Uganda.

Thirdly, the research focuses primarily on teachers, headteachers, and educational administrators as the main sources of data, and does not extend to learners, parents, or community leaders, despite their potential influence on female teacher representation. This delimitation is intentional to concentrate on the professional experiences, institutional challenges, and policy implications from an insider perspective, which are directly linked to recruitment, promotion, and workplace retention decisions within the school system.

Lastly, the study is delimited to three core thematic areas: socio-cultural factors, institutional and policy-related barriers, and personal and professional challenges, as outlined in the research objectives. Broader systemic issues such as national economic conditions, historical trends in gender and education, or global feminist movements are beyond the scope of this study, although they may provide useful context. This thematic focus ensures the study remains aligned with its specific aim of informing practical interventions to address the underrepresentation of female teachers in upper primary education in Uganda.

1.8 Definition of key terms

Upper primary refers to the later phase of primary education, typically covering the final years before a student transitions to secondary school. In many educational systems, including Uganda’s, upper primary comprises Primary Five (P.5) to Primary Seven (P.7), usually catering to children aged between 10 and 13 years. This stage builds upon the foundational skills acquired in the lower primary levels, focusing more on advanced literacy, numeracy, science, social studies, and critical thinking. Upper primary is a crucial period in a child’s academic journey, as it not only consolidates basic education but also prepares learners for the Primary Leaving Examinations (PLE), which determine entry into secondary education.