CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introductions
This section presents the literature in line with other scholars;
2.1 The perceptions of private primary school teachers towards the importance of physical education in the school curriculum
During the Dark Age, the scholasticism believes the key to successful life was the development of the mental or intellectual powers. These beliefs presented a challenge to physical activities since it was not allowed to be one of the subjects in the curriculum. During the period of Renaissance, scholars believed that PE has an impact to their bodies and soul that was inspirable and endorsable. This belief was necessary for health, to develop the body as a preparation for welfare and recognition for the important contribution of PE to the social and moral life (Sober website, 2019). Woods (2023), in agreement with the above beliefs, argued that the great thought in PE was not only the education of the physical nature, but the relation of physical training to complete education, and then the effort to make the physical contribute its full share to the life of the individual, in environment, training, and culture.
In the modern era, PE is viewed from the broader perspective (Siedentop, 2009). For instance, the International Charter on PE Sports (2018) pointed out that PE and Sports was essential elements of life education in the overall education system. Therefore, PE is considered as a fundamental human right to which access must be made universal.
Based the above premise, PE was first made an essential part of education in the ancient Greece (Bennet, Howell, Simri, 2024) In the late eighteenth century; Germany accorded PE and games on the curriculum. Bennet et al, (2021) points out that PE in Denmark became mandatory by law at elementary school level in 1814. However, the law discriminated against the girl child. The plight of the girl child as far as PE was concerned was only addressed after 25 years. It was Denmark and Sweden that first established the principle of attempting to provide PE in the schools for all students (Bennet et al 2021). PE is today an integral part of education and serves to ensure the all-round development of the physical and moral qualities of school children, to prepare them for life, labour and defense of their country.
Physical Education (PE) has increasingly been acknowledged as a crucial component of the school curriculum due to its contributions to holistic child development, including physical, cognitive, emotional, and social growth. Globally, studies have shown that teacher perceptions significantly influence the implementation and quality of PE instruction in schools (Hardman & Green, 2021). Positive perceptions among teachers are associated with a strong belief in the role of PE in promoting physical health, reducing obesity, improving classroom behavior, and enhancing academic performance. However, in many contexts, particularly in developing countries, PE is often undervalued, perceived as less academic, and allocated fewer resources compared to core subjects like mathematics and language (Bailey et al., 2020).
In East African countries, including Uganda, the perception of PE remains mixed. While education policy frameworks such as the Uganda National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC, 2021) emphasize the inclusion of PE as a compulsory subject at the primary level, its actual implementation largely depends on the attitudes of school administrators and teachers. Private primary schools, in particular, may deprioritize PE due to academic competition and a strong focus on examination results. Teachers in these schools often view PE as an extracurricular activity rather than an essential part of the curriculum (Mugisha & Ssenyonjo, 2022). This perception is further influenced by limited training in physical education during teacher preparation programs, lack of equipment, inadequate playgrounds, and minimal institutional support.
Research by Ochieng and Wanyama (2023) in Kenyan private schools revealed that even though teachers recognized the physical and mental health benefits of PE, they lacked motivation to teach it due to inadequate professional development and the perception that it is not examinable. In Uganda, a study by Nakibuuka and Lumu (2022) highlighted that many private primary school teachers admitted to either skipping PE lessons or treating them casually because of the pressure to complete academic syllabi in examinable subjects. These negative perceptions lead to insufficient PE instruction, which undermines children’s right to physical and holistic education.
Nonetheless, some studies demonstrate that when teachers are exposed to quality PE training and sensitization programs, their attitudes significantly improve. Programs that integrate PE with academic learning and emphasize its contribution to student discipline, school attendance, and social development tend to be more successful (Tiruneh, 2020). Therefore, improving teacher perceptions of PE in private primary schools requires a multi-dimensional approach, including curriculum reform, adequate resourcing, teacher training, and policy enforcement, while PE is theoretically acknowledged as vital in the curriculum, the perceptions of private primary school teachers towards its importance remain a critical factor in its implementation. Addressing the barriers that shape negative attitudes such as inadequate training, lack of facilities, and low prioritization is key to strengthening the role of physical education in achieving quality primary education.
According to the MoES Monitoring report (2011) on compulsory teaching of Physical Education, many schools had not actively taken up the implementation of the subject most particularly the privately-owned secondary schools. There were significant challenges facing the implementation of compulsory secondary schools’ PE in Uganda.
2.2 Assess the level of teacher preparedness and competence in delivering physical education instruction in private primary schools
Teacher preparedness and competence are fundamental components in the effective delivery of Physical Education (PE) in schools. Globally, numerous studies emphasize that the quality of PE instruction is directly influenced by the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of the teachers assigned to deliver it (Hardman, 2021). In many countries, especially in developed regions, teachers undergo rigorous training programs that equip them with the pedagogical and practical competencies required to deliver high-quality PE lessons. However, in low- and middle-income countries, including many in Sub-Saharan Africa, there are persistent challenges related to inadequate teacher training in PE, limited professional development opportunities, and the absence of specialized PE instructors in primary schools (UNESCO, 2022).
In the East African context, research shows that PE is often undervalued in the school curriculum, resulting in limited investment in the training and recruitment of qualified PE teachers (Mwisukha & Wahome, 2020). Many private primary schools in the region prioritize academic subjects that are examinable, thus relegating PE to a lower status. Consequently, PE lessons are frequently handled by untrained teachers or classroom teachers with limited knowledge and confidence in delivering PE instruction effectively. This situation undermines the objectives of PE, which include promoting physical fitness, teamwork, and mental well-being among learners.
PE facilities form part of the core component of instruction materials in PE lessons. Physical Education should take place in an environment conducive to the learning and enriching of movement skills (such as stability, non- and locomotor and manipulative skills) (Stroebel et al. 2019). PE facilities according to Byaruhanga (2008) were constructed in schools to serve dual purpose. PE facilities in schools are used by both the school and the community for sports. Availability of PE facilities in the schools or within the reach of the school will determine whether the school will actively teach PEand practice Co-curricular sports.
Marc Johnson (2012), president of University of Nevada was quoted commenting on the importance of sports facilities on the on the RGJ.COM website, He observed that:“The student-athletes come for interviews and they look at the facilities and those schools with great facilities encourage those student-athletes to say, ‘Wow! This school supports athletics. I think I can be successful here,’’ He went on to say, “Additionally, it helps recruit coaches. The facilities send a message to coaches, assistant coaches and other staff. Whenever professionals take a job, they want to make sure they can be successful on the job, and the facilities they must help their players be successful will also make the coaches successful, as coaches, too, are on career tracks.”
Equipment and supplies are essential for the attainment of educational goals and objectives. Simpson and Anderson (1981) defined equipment as “items that last a minimum number of years or cost more than a certain amount” and supplies as items such as microscope slides, glass tubing, and cotton swabs, that are quickly consumed and that are usually less expensive than equipment items”. Some equipment performs specific functions while others such as computers perform multiplicity of functions. Sports equipment according to Sensagent Online Dictionary refers to equipment required for engagement in sports (such as balls, bats, rackets, skis, skates, ropes, weights) and devices for protection of athletes during performance (such as masks, glove, and mouth piece).
According to Ministry of Education and Sports (2008 unpublished) Guidelines for improving the conduct of PEand Sports in educational institutions outlined basic PEequipment for all PEunits in the syllabus for the respective levels (e.g. balls for netball, football, handball and volleyball; javelins, shot puts, uprights, bars and landing mattresses for athletics; and ropes, mats and horses for gymnastics) must be provided for by educational institutions. It further recommended at least two items for each of the ball games and for each of the athletics category. This same guideline went on to recommend that amidst resource constraints, Educational Institutions are encouraged to improvise where applicable to add on the available numbers of the imported items to meet the required learner to item ratio. With current policy of inclusion of learners with special learning needs into the main stream schools, the guideline also encouraged educational institutions to provide equipment for learners with special learning needs as well as, a well-equipped first aid kit for emergency in case of injuries that may occur during PES activities.
The East Africa Playgrounds website observed that, one of the many issues facing PEand sports participation in Uganda is lack of resources and equipment. Many schools just don’t have the funds to buy balls and kits. Often if they do have equipment, there is not enough, they are old and damaged, and few children get to use them. It’s therefore worth noting that there existed information gap regarding available sports equipment in the schools and the gap that exist needs to be filled.
In Uganda, private primary schools vary widely in terms of resources, staffing, and emphasis on physical education. While some well-funded schools employ trained PE specialists, many others assign PE responsibilities to generalist teachers who lack adequate preparation in PE pedagogy (Nakabugo et al., 2023). This results in inconsistent delivery of PE content and a general lack of structure in lessons. Studies have noted that most private school teachers have not received sufficient pre-service or in-service training specific to physical education, and this affects their competence in planning, demonstrating, and assessing PE activities (Ssebuwufu, 2021). Additionally, limited access to facilities, equipment, and time allocation further hampers their ability to deliver meaningful PE instruction, the literature reveals a significant gap in teacher preparedness and competence in physical education within private primary schools, particularly in developing countries like Uganda. Addressing these challenges requires targeted policy interventions, including the integration of PE in teacher training curricula, provision of professional development programs, and the hiring of specialized PE teachers to ensure that learners benefit fully from this critical area of the school curriculum.
2.3 Factors influencing teachers’ attitudes towards the teaching of physical education in private primary schools.
One of the key factors influencing teachers’ attitudes is their professional training and qualifications in physical education. Studies have shown that teachers with formal training in PE tend to have more positive attitudes towards the subject compared to those who lack such training (Hardman et al., 2014). This is largely because trained teachers feel more competent and confident in delivering PE lessons. In contrast, untrained teachers may feel inadequately prepared, leading to negative perceptions and low motivation to teach PE (Cothran, Kulinna & Garn, 2010).
Effective PE delivery entails PE educators working towards presenting a comprehensive PE learning opportunity that, together with appropriate instruction, promotes quality theoretical and practical movement knowledge and skills (Lundvall 2015). The presence of qualified PE teachers plays a crucial role in the implementation of PE programmes. Byaruhanga (2008) argued that a well-trained teacher should be able to understand, interpret and translate the subject matter from the syllabus into physical activity for the learners through scheming, lesson planning and implementation of the curriculum by active teaching of PE . Tinning (2007) emphasized that teachers should know what to do to provide engaging experiences for all young people in the PE class. Le Masurier and Corbin, (2006) argued that it is essential for teachers to know their role and to be able to justify the importance of PE and why it exists on the school curriculum, besides the fact that it was compulsory. Amongst other responsibilities, educators are responsible for ensuring PE delivery through effective teaching, fair resource allocation, impartial time allocation, authentic assessment and continuous professional development for effective interpersonal interactions and knowledge construction in schools (Ho et al. 2016)
In another study, Janzen at al. (2003) found out that PE specialist teachers in Manitoba were more likely to: (a) deliver developmentally appropriate, inclusive and gender equitable lessons; (b) take into consideration students’ affective development within their classes, (c) have increased variety of classroom and extracurricular activities; and (d) have a positive impact on the overall school climate. In line with the above positions, Byaruhanga (2008) observed that, the individual teacher’s competence was a critical factor in the quality and delivery of PElessons to the learners. He further argued that competent teachers provide quality learning and incompetent teachers results into poor learning. He also found out that majority of the teachers handling PEin Uganda and Kenya were neither adequately trained nor qualified to teach physical education.
Given the uniqueness of P. E and Sports, the UNESCO Charter on P.E, Article 4, advocated for personnel professionalism and competence of PEteachers and emphasized that PEteachers, should be appropriately qualified, having ‘adequate levels of specialization (Hardman & Marshall, 2000). The American National Association for Sport and Physical Education, and the American Heart Association (AAHPERD 2010), just like the UNESCO Charter on PE and Sports advocated for certification and licensing of P.E. teachers at the elementary, middle school/junior high and high school levels in America.
Another important factor is the perceived importance of physical education in the overall curriculum. In many private schools, PE is often viewed as less important than core academic subjects like mathematics and English. This perception can lead to reduced instructional time, limited resources, and low prioritization by school administrators, which in turn affects teachers’ attitudes (Morgan & Hansen, 2008). When teachers see that PE is undervalued by school leadership, they are less likely to view the subject as significant and may approach it with less enthusiasm.
Workload and time constraints also influence teachers’ attitudes. Teachers in private schools often handle multiple subjects or administrative responsibilities, which limits the time and energy they can dedicate to PE. Research by Tinning and Kirk (2015) indicates that when teachers are overburdened with other responsibilities, they may neglect PE or deliver it with minimal effort. This situation is compounded by the often rigid academic timetables in private schools, which leave little room for active and engaging PE sessions.
Additionally, availability of facilities and teaching resources plays a crucial role. A study by Faulkner et al. (2011) revealed that schools with adequate playgrounds, sports equipment, and changing facilities foster more positive attitudes among teachers towards PE. In contrast, a lack of infrastructure discourages effective teaching and leads to frustration among teachers, especially when they are unable to implement planned activities due to physical limitations.
Teachers’ personal experiences and beliefs about physical activity and sports are also influential. Teachers who were actively engaged in sports during their own schooling years or maintain an active lifestyle are more likely to have a positive attitude towards teaching PE (Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999). Conversely, those with negative past experiences or who are physically inactive may project their disinterest or discomfort onto their teaching practices.
Moreover, professional development opportunities impact attitudes. Access to workshops, seminars, and continuous training in PE enables teachers to update their knowledge and teaching strategies, thereby enhancing their confidence and willingness to teach the subject (Blankenship & Coleman, 2009). In private schools where such opportunities are rare or non-existent, teachers may feel unsupported and less motivated to teach PE effectively.
Finally, support from school leadership and policy frameworks has been shown to influence teachers’ attitudes. When school administrators provide support through scheduling, budget allocations, and recognition of PE’s value, teachers are more likely to feel motivated and committed to the subject (DeCorby et al., 2005). Policy guidelines that emphasize the inclusion of PE as a core subject also help to legitimize its role and encourage positive teacher engagement, teachers’ attitudes towards the teaching of physical education in private primary schools are shaped by a complex interplay of factors, including their training, institutional support, perceived value of the subject, workload, and personal experiences. Addressing these factors through enhanced training, supportive policies, adequate resourcing, and continuous professional development can significantly improve the teaching and learning of PE in private primary school settings.
2.4 Summary of the literature
The literature highlights that Physical Education (PE) is increasingly recognized as essential to holistic child development supporting physical, cognitive, emotional, and social growth. Globally, positive teacher perceptions are critical to effective PE implementation, contributing to student health, behavior, and academic outcomes. However, in developing countries like Uganda, PE often remains marginalized due to its non-examinable status and perceived lower academic value, especially in private primary schools. Limited resources, inadequate facilities, and insufficient teacher training exacerbate this challenge.
In East Africa and Uganda, national curricula emphasize PE as a compulsory subject, but implementation varies significantly. Many private schools deprioritize PE in favor of academic subjects. Teachers often lack specialized training and view PE as extracurricular. Studies from Kenya and Uganda reveal that while teachers acknowledge PE’s benefits, they feel unmotivated due to professional development gaps and curriculum pressures. Some improvements in teacher attitudes have been observed when targeted training and integrated teaching approaches are used.
In terms of teacher preparedness and competence, the quality of PE instruction is largely influenced by teachers’ knowledge, skills, and confidence. In Uganda, many private school teachers lack both pre-service and in-service PE training. This leads to poor delivery of PE content and inconsistency in teaching quality. The absence of qualified PE instructors, limited equipment, and poor infrastructure further weaken instructional effectiveness. The situation calls for policy reforms in teacher education and recruitment to boost competence in PE delivery.
