HOW TRADITIONAL CULTURAL BELIEFS AND PRACTICES AFFECT PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLMENT AND RETENTION AMONG CHILDREN IN BUTAGAYA SUBCOUNTY JINJA DISTRICT

CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION

This chapter gives background to the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives, research questions, significance, scope, and limitations of the study.

1.1. Background to the study

Globally, education is recognized as a fundamental human right and a key driver of socio-economic development (Nwachukwu, 2024). International frameworks such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 4, emphasize the importance of inclusive and equitable quality education for all (Chari, 2024). Despite these commitments, millions of children around the world, especially in developing countries, still face barriers to school enrolment and retention. Among the many challenges, cultural beliefs and traditional practices have been identified as significant factors influencing children’s access to and continued participation in education (Hajebi, & Bälter, 2024).

In Africa, traditional cultural values play a complex role in shaping community attitudes toward education. While some practices support child development, others hinder educational progress, particularly for girls. Early marriages, gender-based roles, initiation ceremonies, preference for boys’ education, and child labor are among the cultural practices that affect school enrolment and retention (Cerf, 2023). In many African societies, children may be withdrawn from school to fulfill traditional obligations or because their education is not perceived as valuable compared to cultural responsibilities. These deeply rooted practices continue to challenge efforts by governments and non-governmental organizations to achieve universal primary education across the continent.

SSA, of which Uganda belongs, is     the region with the highest levels of illiteracy in the world and many pupils are denied their fundamental right to education. According to the United Nations, moan 40 million children, almost half of the continent’s primary school age pupils are not in school of which about two-thirds of them are female. Fewer than half of Africa’s children get a chance to finish primary school (Go vender etal 2021). Education is the driving force behind any strong economy and a prerequisite for social and economic growth. It creates opportunities and provides societies with a better educated and skilled work force which is necessary for stimulating development (Govender etal 2021). In an effort to provide education for all, Universal Primary Education (UPE) policy has become popular in many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) for achieving Education for All (EFA) since the mid-1990s (Avenstrup et al, 2020).

The current Ugandan education structure has been in place since 1963 and came as a result of recommendation made by the Castle Commission. The country’s formal education system starts with seven years of primary school (ages 6-12), which is ‘supposedly’ compulsory and free according to the current universal primary education program me. It is followed by six years of primary education for ages 13-18, which is also free and compulsory, though the last two for S.5 and 6, Government is under way to make it universal. This level is succeeded by three to five years of university or tertiary education depending on the profession selected by the individual (Kakuru, 2023).

In Uganda, and specifically in rural areas like Butagaya Subcounty in Jinja District, traditional cultural beliefs and practices remain influential in shaping parental and community decisions regarding children’s education. Despite government interventions such as the Universal Primary Education (UPE) program introduced in 1997, enrolment and retention rates still face setbacks due to cultural dynamics. In some communities, children are expected to contribute to household labor, participate in traditional ceremonies, or prepare for early marriage, especially girls, all of which disrupt their schooling. Moreover, societal attitudes toward formal education versus traditional knowledge continue to impact the prioritization of schooling.

United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural organization’s (UNESCO) global monitoring report released in 2004 which tracks countries,  progress on UPE achievement found out that 22 countries in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) were far from achieving the Education For All (EFA) goals because primary enrolments are low, gender ratios highly unequal, widespread illiteracy, poor educational quality and high school dropouts. A scenario of low primary school completion in these countries persists despite the effort of universalizing education through UPE (Agolli, & Hasmeta, 2025).

According to the Ministry of Education Sports records , 2014  the government of Uganda allocated hundreds of billions to the Ministry of Education in order to ensure the development of education by improving on the quality and retention of pupils and retention and this was further evidenced by the improved budgetary allocation where as in 2011/2012 budget education comprised 15% of the total government expenditure by 2012/2013 it had reached 17% MoES, 2014 but despite the numerous effort to invest heavily in the ministry there is still low retention of pupils ins schools (Mukasa et al., 2024).

The introduction of UPE accompanied by government commitment, including political leadership resulted into a surge in primary school enrolment from 2.7 million pupils in 1996 to 5.3 million in 1997 and to 7.1 million in 2005.  The ever increasing primary school enrolment has consequently led to improvements in Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER). Whereas GER in the decade preceding 19976 had increased by only 39%, by 2004 GER had risen by 104.42%, (Bategeka et al., 2020). This suggests that Uganda is on the verge of attaining the UPE Millennium Development Goals (MDG) in as far as access is concerned.   However, much as primary school enrolment has been a success, the concern now is with regard to the internal efficiency of primary education that is the ability to retain pupils until they graduate from primary school. The incidence of pupils dropping out of school is palpable in primary six and primary five which is 34.9 percent and 22.1 percent respectively (NSDS, 2021). The comprehensive evaluation of basic education in Uganda report (2019) asserted that UPE dropout has escalated from 4.7% in 2002 to 6.1% in 2005.  It further notes that of the Net Enrollment Ratio (NER) for boys and girls is 93.01%, however 55% of boys and 54.6% of girls reach primary four, while 31.2% of the boys and 27.7% of girls reach primary seven.

Understanding the extent to which these cultural factors influence school participation in Butagaya Subcounty is crucial for developing context-specific strategies to promote education for all children.

1.2. Statement of the problem

Despite global, continental, and national commitments to achieving inclusive and equitable quality education as enshrined in international frameworks such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4), millions of children particularly in developing countries still face persistent barriers to school enrolment and retention. One of the most significant and often under-addressed barriers is the influence of traditional cultural beliefs and practices. In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where Uganda is located, cultural norms such as early marriage, child labor, initiation ceremonies, and gender-based roles continue to undermine efforts toward universal primary education (UPE). Statistics show that over 40 million children of primary school age in SSA are not in school, with two-thirds of them being girls, and fewer than half complete primary education (Govender et al., 2021). In Uganda, although the introduction of UPE in 1997 led to an impressive increase in enrolment from 2.7 million in 1996 to 7.1 million in 2005 the internal efficiency of the system remains a critical concern. High dropout rates persist, particularly in rural areas, with 34.9% and 22.1% of pupils dropping out in primary six and five, respectively (NSDS, 2021). The Comprehensive Evaluation of Basic Education (2019) also revealed that only 27.7% of girls and 31.2% of boys reach primary seven, despite a relatively high Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) of over 90%. In areas like Butagaya Subcounty in Jinja District, cultural expectations such as child labor, early marriage, and participation in traditional rituals continue to pull children especially girls out of school. This happens even as the Ugandan government continues to allocate significant budgetary resources to the education sector, with education comprising up to 17% of total expenditure in the 2012/2013 financial year (MoES, 2014). The persistent gap between enrolment and retention suggests that access alone is not enough; socio-cultural dynamics must be critically examined. Understanding how deeply embedded cultural norms in communities like Butagaya affect school participation is essential for developing targeted interventions that ensure not just enrolment, but successful retention and completion of primary education for all children.

1.5. Purpose of the study

The overall purpose of this study is to investigate how traditional cultural beliefs and practices affect primary school enrolment and retention among children in butagaya sub-county, primary school jinja district

1.6. Specific objectives

1. To identify social factors that influence pupils’ retention in universal primary education schools.
2. To examine the challenges of pupil retention in butagaya sub-county, primary school jinja district.

• To indentify the strategies aimed at retaining pupils in butagaya sub-county, primary school jinja district.

1.7 Research Questions

1. What social factors that influence pupils’ retention in universal primary education schools?
2. To examine the challenges of pupil retention in butagaya sub-county, primary school jinja district.

• To indentify the strategies aimed at retaining pupils in butagaya sub-county, primary school jinja district.

1.8  Scope of the Study

1.8.1 Study Scope

The study will cover the social factors; social factors that influence pupils’, challenges of pupil retention and the strategies aimed at retaining pupils.

1.8.2 Geographical Scope

The study will be carried out at butagaya sub-county, primary school jinja district.

1.8.3 Time scope

The period of data to be considered in the organization will be from 2019-2024 and period of body of knowledge in reviewing literature will be from 2015-2024.

1.9       Significance of the Study

1. It is hoped that the study might provide guidance to the government in formulation of policies, regarding pupil retention in schools.
2. It is hoped that the study will add to the already existing literature on challenges of pupil retention in schools

• The study may add information to the already existing literature on the challenges of pupil retention in schools.

1. The study might stimulate further research into the area of Universal Primary Education.
2. The study might help the government strengthen policies on child retention in schools.

1.10 Definition of key terms

Traditional cultural beliefs refer to the long-standing customs, values, norms, and practices that are passed down from one generation to another within a specific community or society. These beliefs often shape how individuals think, behave, and interact with others and the environment. Rooted in history, religion, and ancestral knowledge, traditional cultural beliefs influence various aspects of life, including gender roles, family structure, health practices, education, and moral conduct. They serve as a source of identity and social cohesion, guiding community members in decision-making and maintaining order. However, while many of these beliefs promote unity and continuity, some may conflict with modern values or development efforts, especially when they limit individual rights or hinder progress in areas like education and healthcare.

School enrolment refers to the process by which children or learners are officially registered and admitted into a school or educational institution at a particular level of education. It involves the act of enrolling students to begin or continue their formal education, typically marked by their inclusion in the school’s records or databases. School enrolment is a key indicator used by governments and international organizations to measure access to education and progress toward achieving universal education goals. It reflects the number of students who have been accepted into a school, often categorized by age, grade, gender, or education level (such as primary, secondary, or tertiary). High enrolment rates are generally associated with better educational access, while low rates may point to barriers such as poverty, cultural beliefs, gender disparities, or lack of infrastructure.

Retention in primary school refers to the continued attendance and progression of pupils through the primary education cycle without dropping out or repeating grades unnecessarily. It is a key indicator of the effectiveness and inclusiveness of the education system, reflecting the ability of schools and communities to keep children enrolled and engaged until they complete the final grade of primary education. High retention rates suggest that children are receiving consistent learning opportunities, while low retention rates may indicate challenges such as poverty, cultural practices, poor school environments, early marriages, child labor, or lack of parental support. Ensuring retention in primary school is essential for achieving universal primary education and for laying a strong foundation for lifelong learning and socio-economic development.

1.11 Delimitations of the Study

This study was delimited to selected Universal Primary Education (UPE) schools within Butagaya Sub-county in Jinja District, Uganda. The research focused specifically on the influence of traditional cultural beliefs and practices on primary school enrolment and retention. It targeted pupils, teachers, parents, and local leaders within the sub-county, and did not include secondary or tertiary education levels. The study was confined to social and cultural factors, such as early marriages, initiation ceremonies, gender roles, and child labor, excluding economic or policy-related influences beyond their interaction with cultural norms. Moreover, the investigation was limited to data collected during the research period and did not account for long-term trends or impacts beyond the scope of the study area. These delimitations were made to ensure depth, relevance, and manageability of the study within the available time and resources.