IMPACT OF SLUM ENVIRONMENT ON DISCIPLINE OF STUDENTS                                    IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS: A CASE STUDY BASED ON                                                 SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS                                                                                             IN KAMPALA DISTRICT

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Slums are neglected parts of cities with poor housing and living conditions. These areas are usually over crowded, by a cross-section of people, the low social-economic class, the less fortunate and the law less. Slums are more or less a collection of broken and frustrated families. 

The United Nations Human Settlements Program (UN-Habitat) defines a slum household as one that lacks one or more of the following: Access to improved water, Access to improved sanitation, Security of tenure, Durability of housing and sufficient living area

They lack basic municipal services like water supply, water drainage, sanitation, waste collection, lighting and security. There are no well facilitated clinics, well structured playing centers, schools and other community service centres where the people can meet and socialize.

Despite the difficulties that they present, the slums can also be a source of protection for youths. Young people who live in slum areas report feeling part of the community and a sense of connectedness and belonging that does not exist in more affluent areas of the city. The slums are also culturally dynamic, and much of the popular music that Ugandan youth listen to today comes from there.

However, such an environment characterized by insecurity , poor health services, bad governance, lawlessness, corruption, poor infrastructures, poverty, and other forms of dysfunction has arguably led to a belief that slums cannot give rise to well disciplined children. However, some people believe that children from poor families tend to develop good morals in the quest to make meaning out of their lives, and so create a better future. Several role models in society attest to this.

The November 2007 SAP community report of Wabigalo community (Makindye Division

Kampala district) showed that violence amongst the youths was rising by the day. One of the major causes of this violence emanates from the increased use of drugs, unemployment, idleness, and poverty amongst the youths.

Education is a critical tool for the transformation of the individual and the Secondary education aimed at preparing the individual for useful living within the society and preparation for higher education. For the individual to be able to live a useful life in his society and contribute towards the social, economic and political development of the nation, the relevant skills, values, attitudes, knowledge and competencies must be impacted (Abdulamid Y. F. Yarduma, A. C. 2007).

Even though education in schools might be free of charge, most youths and their parents or guardians cannot afford school requirements such as uniforms, shoes, scholastic materials, transport, toilet papers, brooms, soap, sanitary pads, as well as good feeding..  

Youth who live in slums face particular challenges. For instance, they are more likely to start having sex early, abuse of alcohol and drugs at an earlier age, become victims of violence and to drop out of school. The Nairobi Cross Sectional Slums Survey (APHRC, 2002) revealed that slum residents lack secure and healthy shelter with basic infrastructure such as clean piped water and adequate sanitation. They have lower school enrollment rates than their peers in other areas for both males and females, and worse health and reproductive health outcomes.

The outside world often views them as common criminals, and they are often subject to police harassment, shakedowns, and arrest. Once arrested, it takes a significant sum of money from their family’s limited finances to get them released. The harshness of life in the slums is reflected in the music of the young people who grew up there ((NACADA, 2004).

The factors that most affect young people and result in either positive or negative outcomes or behavior are examined at six levels namely: the macro; community; school/work; family; peer; and individual levels

Young people who are sexually abused are more likely to be depressed and have higher rates of alcohol and drug use than their peers (Centre for the Study of Adolescence, 2003). Sexual abuse also places young people at risk for sexually transmitted infections and HIV/AIDS.

Under the umbrella of these disciplinary policies, school officials utilized suspensions and expulsions to address school misconduct. Under the Gun Free School Act (GFSA) of 1994, students were compelled to not carry firearms on school grounds under the threat of expulsion. Now, offenses punishable under school Zero Tolerance policies have expanded to include several other forms of misconduct.

Several authors have defined the term discipline. According to Adesina (1980:108), discipline is to teach the students to respect the school authorities, to observe the school laws and regulations and to maintain an established standard of behaviour. From this definition the school has a role to play in inculcating discipline into the students. Hence school administrators and teachers should impose discipline on the students. Egwunyenga (1994) defined discipline as the training that enables an individual to develop an orderly conduct and self-control as well as direction. Peretomode (1995) maintained that discipline involves self-control, restraint, respect for self and respect for others. Discipline according to Abubakar (2000) is the ability and willingness to do what one ought to do without external control. Hence one can say discipline is internally motivated within the individual. It is voluntary and an individual deliberately makes efforts to conform to an established code of conduct. However, Aguba (2009) while

emphasizing Douglas McGregor’s theory x, maintained that discipline is externally induced in individuals who do not succumb to established rules and regulations out of personal volition but out of fear of punishment or sanction. Rosen (1997) sees discipline as a branch of knowledge, training that develops self-control, character, orderliness or efficiency, strict control to enforce obedience and treatment that controls or punishes and as a system of rules According to Slee

(1995), discipline involves teaching and self control. The United States department of Education

1993:1 in Rosen (1997) acknowledges that maintaining a disciplined environment conducive for learning requires an ethics of caring that shapes staff-students relations.

I intend through this study to gather information about whether slum environment has any substantial influence on the discipline of secondary school students

1.2 Statement of the Problem     

It has been observed that in the recent past there has been a wave of strikes, indiscipline and unrest of students in some secondary schools throughout the country.  A number of researches have been conducted and commissions set to try and unravel the root causes of indiscipline and propose concrete solutions to these problems. The causes range from increasing indiscipline of students to poor methods of school administration characterised by lack of transparency and accountability, and good governance (MoES Guidelines on Handling of Indiscipline in Schools 2001). Different studies for example Ssekamwa (1997) indicated that good academic performance works hand in hand with students and teachers good discipline. However Discipline continues to be a growing problem in our schools. Students’ indiscipline generally militates against effective teaching, learning and production of useful members of society. Achievement of the goals of secondary school education largely depends on the positive disposition of students in their academic work, discipline both at school and the environment within which the schools may be located. 

With such environment, the discipline and education performance on the side of the students may be compromised as Danso (2010) reports. 

To educational stakeholders, a key question still remains, “What is the implication of slum environment on the discipline of the school going age?” With the increased concern for the future moral fiber of our nation, this question is an inescapable area of research as there is a scanty study done on slum schools in Uganda.   

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to establish the influence of slum environment on the discipline of students in secondary schools. 

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The study will be guided by the following objectives.

1. To examine the relationship between slum environment and the  discipline of students
2. To examine the influence of home environment on the students discipline living in the slum communities.
3. To investigate the forms of discipline applied by teachers and parents on students in the slum environment
4. To find out what exactly these acts of indiscipline are, identify and articulate them properly.
5. To examine the occupational safety, health and welfare of learners.

1.5 Research Questions

The study will be guided by the following research questions 

1. What is the effect of slum environment on the discipline of students in the secondary schools?
2. What is the influence of family background on the discipline of the students living in the slum communities?
3. What are the different forms of discipline used by teachers and parents on the students

1.6 Hypothesis

The study will be guided by the following hypotheses

H0. There is no relationship between slum environment and the discipline of students.

H1.The characteristic discipline indicators of students in slum environment

H2.The attitudes of slum students toward discipline

1.7 Significance

This study will be useful to various educational stakeholders and other program and project designers who may be targeting slum and disadvantaged communities in the following ways.

• The government, in particular educational policy makers will get an insight into the relationship between slum environment and students’ discipline so as to plan appropriately. 
• School administrators and teachers will get adequate information to make proper decisions when handling slum children. 
• The findings of the study will also benefit Parents in slum areas in that, they will clearly understand the influence of slum environment over their children and thus offer informed parenting. 
• The city management bodies will also gain an insight into the effect of slum environment on the students’ discipline, which will enable them plan for urban areas appropriately.
• The concerned NGOs will be enriched with information about the effects of slum environment on school going children and hence offer better services. 
• The slum children will gain an insight into the implications of a slum environment on their discipline so as to cooperate with the various educational stakeholders.

The study therefore will provide substantial awareness to a number of concerned people for informed decision making and better services.

1.8 Scope of the study

The study will focus on the impact of slum environment on the discipline of students                                    in secondary schools in Kampala

1.8.1 Geographical Scope  

Geographically, the study is limited to the slum schools in Kampala district. 

1.9 Definition of significant terms

The following terms have been given operational meaning for the purpose of this study:

An administrator refers to a person charged with the responsibility of coordinating human and non-human resources in an organization towards the achievement of common and pre-defined goals.

Discipline: refers to a state of physical or mental orderliness of a learner as a result of desirable learning, externally imposed by rules, punishments and rewards.

Indiscipline:  refers to a situation whereby a student’s behavioral pattern is contrary to the laid down conduct in a school. Such a behavior is manifested by deeds like boycotting classes, dodging examinations, refusal to do class exercises, bullying, drug abuse, use of vulgar language, sneaking out of school and rioting.

Involvement:  refers to the act of causing somebody to take part in an activity.

Influence: refers to the ability of something to have an effect over something else so that a change is seen or felt.

Peer: refers to a person who is equal to another in rank, status, class, village or age.

Peer Pressure: refers to the external demand to accept group discussion and behavior which interferes with the individual’s thought and reasoning, in order to identify with the group.

School: according to encyclopedia American, “school” is commonly applied to various kinds of educational institution such as elementary, secondary school.

School Factors: refer to attributes that influence students’ discipline in school.

Work experience: refers to knowledge or skill acquired from doing things

Students: According to oxford advanced learners dictionary, student is a child who is taught in school or privately 

Teacher: One, who directs learning, keeps order and inspires others to learn. He is an organiser for learning experience for students, designer and director of activity and evaluator of pupil’s achievements Ndu (1973)

Slum: is an unhealthy area where basic amenities like water supply, drainage for standard living are lacking, unsanitary conditions prevail and diseases flourish. 

Slums have legal owner of its land.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

A Survey of related studies was undertaken by the investigator to get an insight into the work that has already been in the field of this investigation and also to get suggestions regarding the ways and means for the collection of relevant data and interpretation of results.

This chapter presents the literature review based on the study objectives. These thematic areas include; discipline, parental background or home environment, availability of facility, peer groups etc.   

2.1 The Concepts of Discipline and Management of Students Discipline 

Akubue, (2001) defined discipline as a functional product of orderliness, self-control, self-restraint, respect of oneself and others, perseverance, tolerance and recognition of human dignity. On the other hand Beach (1975) sees it as involving the conditioning or molding of behavior by applying rewards and penalties. Discipline management is looked at also as training that molds, corrects, strengthens or perfects and it is achieved when sound leadership using positive motivation is applied by management (Webster, 1975). We can also define discipline as one’s behavior in the society one lives in with regard to the rules and regulation governing such society meant to make such favorable living environment to the best interest of others. On the other hand, Management is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling of an organization (a group of two or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal (Gomez-Mejia, Luis, Balkin & Cardy, 2008). While Private secondary schools are schools not administered by the local, state or national government; thus, they retain the right to select their students and are funded in whole or in part by charging their students fees or tuition, rather than relying on government funding (Burgmann, 2009) 

Therefore, Management of students discipline is a rational, objective and practical approach to the issues of discipline (Obidike, 2004). In other words, it implies the training of the mind and the character based on sound and constructive policies, rules and sound educative principles in handling students‟ discipline. Lack of disciplinary management skill among private secondary school managers might lead to violation of one or more of the fundamental rights of the students and that might lead to students‟ unrest.

2.1 Theoretical frame

This will be based on the Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura (1977), which proposes that observational learning occurs in relation to three models namely; live, verbal, symbolic models

• Verbal instruction involves the situation in  which an individual clearly describes the desired behavior and how the participant can engage in the behavoiur 
• Live model in which an actual person demonstrates the desired behavior
• Symbolic model, involves the media; namely the television, radio, internet, movies and literature. It involves either real or fictional characters that act as models

Bandura’s social learning theory highly emphasizes the notion of reciprocal determinism, which states that an individual’s behavior is influenced by the environment and characteristics of a person. 

Bandura proposed that the modeling process involves four steps namely:

• Attention; for an individual to learn something there should be  attention to the features of the modeled behavior
• Retention; humans need to be able to remember the details of behavior in order to learn and later reproduce the behavior
• Reproduction; to produce a behavior an individual must organize his or her responses in accordance with the model behavior. This improves with practice
• Motivation; there must be an incentive driving the individual’s reproduction of the behavior. Motivation is so important that without it other factors cannot sustain a behavior.
• Like all other environments, a slum environment has characteristic models from which children can copy and exhibit characteristic behaviors

In the application of Albert Bandura’s theory in this study, the main variables are learning models and discipline of learners.

2.2 The conceptual frame work

Figure1. Conceptual frame work

From the figure1, learner’s discipline is an outcome variable of the model and is the dependent variable as it is influenced by availability of social facilities like schools, worship centers, hospitals and police stations, market centers,  peer groups; Recreation centers like bars, video centers, betting centers and drug market or substance abuse like Drug misuse

• The relationship between the above variables can be intervened by factors namely Family back ground (Economic status of parents, Education level of parents, Marital status, Religion of the parents); Sex of the child; Political factors (e.g. Security, government laws, policies & programs).

2.3 Discipline 

Researchers from various disciplines have proposed that suspensions and expulsions disproportionally impact minorities (Kupchik, 2009). Moreover, some research has illustrated the link between students affected by these policies, negative educational outcomes, and subsequently, involvement in the criminal justice system. However, a neglected area in the current school disciplinary policy debate is the ramifications of suspensions and expulsions on school social bonds. Because the school is an important social institution that compensates for socialization deficits in the family institution, exclusionary school policies may be even more damning for youths (De Li, 1999)

One of the most important factors that impacted youth related violence in urban and slum zones settings was the overall evolving drug market (Blumstein, 1995; Cork, 1997; Reiss and Roth, 1993). Youths were simply carrying guns and joining gangs to protect themselves and their lucrative businesses. A notable caveat regarding the interpretation of statistical inclines is that the reported amount of juveniles involved in the commission of crimes, during any period, may be misleading. The reality is that ‘kids’ are more likely than adults to engage in crime while in groups (Cook & Laub, 1998, 2002; Zemring, 1981). Naturally, the incidence of arrests is going to appear larger for juveniles than for adults.

In Uganda two prominent categories of school foundations exist (Ssekamwa and Lugumba, 2000): faith based and non-faith-based. Yearly, cases of student discipline problems are reported countrywide in schools of both foundations both. From 2001-2006, a wave of student strikes rocked the whole country. Schools which experienced serious student discipline problems in the recent past included Namilyango College, Kidetok Girls SS, Kibuli SS, Comboni College-Lira, St.Catherine Girls School, Sir Samuel Baker, Gulu High School, and Kabalega SS (Byaruhanga, 2004). The situation above makes it apparent that discipline problems are normally sparked off by lack of requisite strategies of managing student discipline.    

The study done on managing students disciple  in Gulu (Denis Thaddeus Ofoyuru and Lawrence Too-Okema 2011) concluded that strategies of managing student discipline in secondary schools in Gulu District included;  rewards, punishment, communication and counselling and both faith-based and non- faith-based schools. Kabandize (2004) also suggested concluded that school administrators, teachers, parents and students all have a role in discipline management.

However there is limited research done on the slum schools in Uganda. So the researcher will entirely focus on the schools in the slum environment in Kampala so as to understand its impact on students.

2.4 School Environment

Students’ discipline and academic success is greatly influenced by the type of school they attend. School factors include school structure, school composition and school climate.

The school that one attends is the institutional environment that sets the parameters of a students’ learning experience. 

As schools are faced with more public accountability for student academic performance and social behavior, school level characteristics are being studied to discover methods of improving achievement for all students. Considerable research has been conducted on teaching skills, climate, socio-economic conditions, and student achievement (Hoy, Kottkamp & Rafferty, 2003). 

Depending on the environment, schools can either open or close the doors that lead to academic performance and discipline (Barry, 2005)

Crosnoe et al. (2004) suggest that school sector (public or private) and class size are two important structural components of the school. Private schools tend to have both better funding and smaller sizes than public schools. 

The additional funding for private schools leads to a better academic performance and more access to resources such as computers, which have been shown to enhance academic achievement (Eamon, 2005). Teacher’s experience is another indicator of student academic performance. Students who attend schools with a higher number of teachers with full credential tend to perform better and vice versa (Bali & Alverez, 2003). 

School environment is closely linked to the interpersonal relations between students and teachers.  According to Crosnoe et al.  (2004), school climate is the general atmosphere of school. Trust between students and teachers increases if the school encourages teamwork. 

Center for Promoting Ideas, USA www.ijhssnet.com Research shows that students who trust their teachers are more motivated and as a result perform better in school (Eamon, 2005). School policies and programmes often dictate the school climate. Furtermore, if a school is able to accomplish a feeling of safety, students can have success regardless of their family or neighbourhood backgrounds (Crosnoe et al., 2004

2.5 classroom environment and of disciplines

The surrounding environment, the way that teachers manage their classrooms/ school administration and school discipline are generally regarded as crucial factors in students’ learning experiences (Ritter and Hancock, 2007; Nie and Lau, 2009). While these concepts have been defined differently, but all of these definitions involve the steps taken by teachers to keep order in their classrooms, engage their students and elicit their cooperation (Emmer and Stough, 2001).

Kennedy (2005) suggests that the need to manage students in the classroom often interferes with teachers’ efforts to convey ideas to them. Furthermore contends that, out of fear of losing their students’ interest, teachers sacrifice intellectual content in order to keep the situation under control because, if they present material that is too intellectually challenging, some students will back off or become distracted and disruptive because they find that following the class requires too much intellectual exertion. 

The classroom environment and discipline have also been identified as a critical factor in teachers’ work satisfaction. Indeed teachers mention school discipline as one of the greatest challenges that they face (Ritter and Hancock, 2007) in the teaching profession. Discipline problems are also frequently cited as one of the main reasons why some teachers decide to leave the profession (Morris-Rothschild and Brassard, 2006). 

Given how strongly the classroom environment influences students’ academic performance, discipline and teachers’ work satisfaction, a number of studies have been conducted in an attempt to identify different discipline management styles and their effectiveness.  Three main styles are identified (Lewis, 2008). 

1. This is associated with the idea that teachers should closely control their classrooms and their students’ behaviour and with the “assertive discipline” or “take-control” approach first developed by Lee and Marlene Canter in 1970 (Malmgren, Trezek and Paul, 2005). This approach calls for teachers to set out ground rules at the start of the school year in order to make the students aware of what kind of behaviour is expected of them and what types of consequences they can expect if they fail to comply. During class, teachers are encouraged to reward and recognize good behaviour and punish misbehaviour. 

Along these same lines, the “interventionist style” is based on the idea that students learn to behave appropriately in the classroom when good conduct is rewarded and bad conduct is punished and that teachers should therefore maintain strict control over the students’ activities in the classroom (Ritter and Hancock, 2007).

1. This approach places greater emphasis on students’ self-control and less on teachers’ authority. 

This discipline management style is associated with the “teacher effectiveness training” model developed by Thomas Gordon, also in the 1970s. This style is based on the idea that students’ self-control is key to their good behaviour in class and that it should be achieved through negotiation and conversations with them (Malmgren, Trezek and Paul, 2005). In this non-interventionist style, students are expected to play an influential role in the classroom. Teachers are not supposed to worry about bringing students’ behaviour into line with what they consider suitable because students will tend to behave more appropriately on their own (Ritter and Hancock, 2007)

1. This third style places emphasis on participation and group decision-making. In this approach, which is based on the “control theory” model developed by William Glasser, students should take responsibility for the behaviour of their classmates and make sure that they conduct themselves properly. This style of discipline calls for frequent course meetings to discuss various behavioural issues and to build consensus around them (Edwards and Mullis, 2003).

In developing countries and in Chile, in particular, few systematic studies have been conducted, although Eyzaguirre and Fontaine suggest that teachers in high performing schools devote more classroom time to instruction by planning out classroom activities more thoroughly and by managing disciplinary issues and remediation policies more effectively (Eyzaguirre and Fontaine, 2008).

1. Types of indiscipline cases in secondary schools

Karuri (2012) defined indiscipline as the act of lawlessness and disorder or going against societal norms. Burudi (2003) explains that indiscipline can be regarded as a situation whereby individuals do not conform to the set boundaries especially in institutions like a school. The behaviours that conflict with desirable learning can also be referred to as indiscipline or unwanted behaviour (Leach 2003) and for a long time, indiscipline has been a common place feature of school life with its causes embedded in the social, residence, cultural, historical, school environment and economic contexts of the time.

Ndirangu (2010) rightly recorded that instances of indiscipline among the students could assume many forms such as lying, stealing, playing truant or running away from home. Neaves (2009) also gave the types of indiscipline cases as use of obscene language, skipping classes, missing of class regularly, stealing other peoples’ property, beating others in school, causing strikes and unrest and drinking alcohol in school and at home. Ireri (1992), claims that indiscipline problems in secondary schools include all forms of disrespect, unruly behaviours, shouting/noisemaking, rudeness, laziness, insolence, grumbling and bullying.

In America, a publication by the legal services for children (2003) stated various types of pupil discipline in schools. These include causing physical injury, violence upon another pupil, possession of controlled substances as alcohol, robbery, stealing school property, engaging in habitual profanity, vulgarity, committing sexual assault to staff and making terrorist threats against the school authority. Karuri (2012) other indiscipline cases includes sleeping in class, failure to do assignments, failure to do duties like mopping the dormitories and sweeping of classes and dressing wrongly while in school. Pregnancy among girls is also a major form of indiscipline as much as defiance of author

2.7.0 The home related factors that contribute to indiscipline in secondary schools.

2.7.1 Anomie and Breakdown of Traditional Family Setup

Today’s family setup is detaching itself from the traditional way of operating in the society. In the traditional African society, the family was and still is considered to be responsible for the upbringing of a child. The family defined social and moral norms while at the same time providing role models for a child to grow into adulthood as was expected. In today’s world, the expected presence of both father and mother is not typical in every home as either one parent is dead or they are separated. This also creates a challenge on the children as one parent may not perfectly do the two roles. 

It is important to note that the most effective way of learning in children is through imitation. Therefore, it is safe to associate role modeling that comes from both parents as a learning process for the child. In this case, how one is socialized to know the norms and practices of the society in which they live in largely has to do with learnt or rather, experienced behavior.

Anomie refers to social instability resulting from a breakdown of standards and values. It is the inadequacy of the usual social or ethical standards in an individual or group. 

According to Durkheim (1951), normlessness (anomie) is caused by the breakdown of the traditional social order. He sees a situation where people are no longer governed by rules of the traditional social order. He argues that the traditional agrarian social structure which preceded industrialization was close knit. People were aware of what was expected of them. There was a very high sense of morality in society which was primarily instilled by the guardians –morality being defined as manner, character, and proper behavior. It is the differentiation of intentions, decisions and actions as being good or bad.

It is difficult in these times to agree on fundamental issues in society as being wrong or right. A mother will be heard telling her child to reciprocate force by force when facing a bully in school as the best way of earning respect and asserting oneself. Also, the parent in the slum who is brought vegetables by their child will sometimes not bother to know where these things came from or by which means was the child able to acquire the goods. 

The times of “it takes a village to raise a child” is in most cases over. Another adult cannot be able to discipline a child who is not theirs. Hence there is low accountability in children from their environment. (UDHS 2016)

From statistics, there is a steady increase in the number of single parents, separations and divorces. This may be a possible suggestion on teenage indiscipline in schools. This is especially so because divorce and separation rates are highest between the ages of 30 and 40 when children born into families are averagely in their adolescent stage. It is therefore not surprising to have teenagers who have personal unrest, alienation and uncertainty that comes from a lack of purpose or ideals, consistent with another definition of anomie therefore precipitating indiscipline in school

2.4 Peer pressure

Peer pressure refers to the influence exerted by a peer group in encouraging a person to change his/her attitudes, values or behavior in order to conform to group norms (Kirk, 2000). While most educators believe that peer pressure has an influence on children’s academic performance and on behavior, Kirk (2000) observes that few studies have been done to prove this believe. Peer groups are an important socialization agent. According to Castrogiovanni (2002), a peer group is defined as a small group of similar age, fairly close friends, sharing the same activities. Adolescents ask questions relating to social identity theories such as, “Who am I?” and “What do I want out of life?” Feeling to be part of a group be it be the stereotypical jocks, or punks, allows adolescents to feel like they are on the way to answering some of these questions. Given that adolescents spend twice as much time with peers as compared to parents or other adults is reason enough to study the influence or pressures that peers place on each other.

The behavior of their peers has a significant impact on young people’s discipline. Most youths tend to confide in their peers and turn to them for advice when faced with a crisis. Peers, therefore, play a vital role in the lives of young people. Risk factors at the peer level include negative peer culture and deviant friends, while protective factors include youth participation, peer education, and youth organizations.

The more subtle form of peer pressure is known as peer influence, and it involves changing one’s behaviour to meet the perceived expectations of others (Burns & Darling, 2002). In general, most teens conform to peer pressure on fairly insignificant things like music, clothing, or hairstyles. When it comes to more important issues like moral values, parents still remain more influential than the peer group (Black, 2002). Participating in peer group activities is a primary stage of development and adolescents’ identities are often closely associated with that of their peers (Santor et al., 2000).

A number of students see some of their peers as role models. Teachers, parents and peers all provide adolescents with suggestions and feedback about what they should think and how they should behave in social situations.

These models can be a source of motivation or a lack thereof. Modelling refers to individual changes in cognition, behaviour, or effects that result from the observation of others (Ryan, 2000). Observing others perform a particular behaviour or voice a certain opinion can introduce an individual to new behaviours and viewpoints that may be different from his or her own.

2.8.0 Policy on discipline in schools

The Ministry of Education and Sports in Uganda is responsible to formulate, monitor, and  review National policies, laws and regulations, plans, programmes; provide technical guidance and support for advancement of Secondary Education, coordinate and oversee Government owned and Government aided Secondary Schools (including the partnering schools.). the Ministry of Education and Sports is also   Ensure discipline of staff and students in Government owned/aided secondary schools, 

10 June 1997: 

The first circular was issued by the Commissioner for Education copied to all District Education Officers, Inspectors of Schools, Head Teachers and Principals to communicate a temporary ban on the use of corporal punishment in schools and colleges. 

9 September 1998: 

The Guidelines on Policy, Roles and Responsibilities of Stakeholders was issued for implementing Universal Primary Education, and in Clause 3.4 (iii) it explicitly forbids use of corporal punishment in schools. 

10 September 2001: 

The second circular was issued by the Permanent Secretary and copied to Head Teachers of government-aided secondary schools to communicate guidelines for handling of discipline in secondary schools. 

7 August 2006: 

The third circular was issued by the Director of Education and copied to primary schools, post-primary institutions, tertiary institutions, colleges and polytechnics to expressly forbid corporal punishment in any school in Uganda. This circular requires each School’s Management Committee or Board of Governors to approve a school disciplinary policy. It further requires that any incident of punishment must be recorded in a specific punishment book maintained by the school. The circular clearly states that anyone ignoring these guidelines would be committing an offence and would be held responsible in the Courts of Law. 

Legal Protection for Children against Corporal Punishment 

The Constitution of Uganda, 

Article 24 

Article 24 of the 1995 Constitution protects every person, including children, from torturous, cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Article 44 under section (a) makes the provisions under Article 24 non-derogable, meaning there Creating Safer Schools 7 

can be no justification for contravening these rights. These provisions ensure that our children have a constitutional right to be educated without humiliating and degrading treatment. 

Children’s Act Cap. 59 

Cap 59: Section 5 explicitly states that anyone entrusted with the care of a child has a duty to maintain that child and to provide for her or his basic rights. Under Section 5 (2) the Act emphasises the responsibility of the same duty-bearers to protect children from discrimination, violence, abuse or neglect. This means that parents, community members and teachers have a responsibility to ensure that when children are in their care, their safety is protected. In schools this means teachers have a responsibility to prevent violence against children, such as in the form of corporal punishment or bullying. 

The Penal Code Act Cap 106: 

Section 221 explicitly states that any person who causes harm to another by an act of omission or commission is guilty of misdemeanour and liable to imprisonment for up to six months. Under section 81 and 228, the Act states that any person who threatens or assaults another person causing actual bodily harm is guilty of misdemeanour and is liable to imprisonment for up to five years. 

Education Act 1970: 

Under Government Standing Orders, chapter 127, the Act explains that the Director of Education shall, on advice from the Education Service Commission or on her/his own motion, remove from the teachers register the name of any teacher who is convicted of a criminal offence involving amoral behaviour or who has been found guilty of misconduct, which in the opinion of the Education Service Commission or Director of Education renders the individual an unsuitable person for employment as a teacher.

In a recent study in Uganda, over 1400 children and almost 1100 adults were surveyed about their experiences with violence, punishment and discipline. The survey results indicated that corporal punishment was indeed a common practice.

More than 98 percent of the children surveyed reported experiencing corporal punishment. More than a third of these children said they experienced it at least once a week; 20 percent said they had been burnt as a form of punishment; and more than 60 percent of the children said they experienced corporal punishment at school regularly.

One out of every seven children said they experienced it every day. Caning was the most popular form of corporal punishment, followed closely by slapping and pinching.

In the same study cited above, when responses from adults and children were compared regarding use of physical punishment, adults consistently underestimated how often they used physical violence against children.

we acknowledge that prohibiting a common response to children’s misbehaviour will only succeed if schools are given workable alternatives.

In this chapter, we encourage you to reconsider your response when you see children misbehaving, and we present the alternative of using positive discipline in the context of a good school.

The four principles of positive discipline

In a positive discipline approach, a disciplinary response should be:

1. Relevant to the misbehaviour
2. Proportional to the offence
3. Focused on correcting the behaviour not humiliating the student
4. Aimed at rehabilitation (learning from mistakes) not retribution (payback)

As custodians of children’s hopes and aspirations, we must accept the responsibility for creating an environment that will help children thrive.

Why do children behave as they do?

We need to understand what motivates children’s behaviour if we want to guide children by using alternatives to corporal punishment.

Just as children have basic physical needs, they also have basic emotional and psychological needs.

 For children to develop to their full potential, these emotional and psychological needs must be met. These needs include the following:

• The need to belong to the group they find themselves a part of.
• The need to be accepted by people who matter the most to them.
• The need to feel emotionally and physically secure.
• The need to feel respected by their peers.

When necessary, positive discipline includes nonviolent consequences for poor

behaviour. It uses consequences that replace the experience of humiliation with the

following:

• Considering the effects of one’s behaviour
• Identifying alternative and preferred behaviours
• Demonstrating understanding of why a preferred behaviour is important
• Making amends for harm done to others or the environment

Positive discipline helps children learn self-discipline without fear. (Creating A Good School Without Corporal Punishment

By Dipak Naker and Deborah Sekitoleko Copyright © 2009 Raising Voices All rights reserved).

When necessary, positive discipline includes non-violent consequences for negative behaviour. It uses consequences that replace the experience of humiliation as follows: 

• Considering the effects of one’s behaviour 
• Identifying alternative and preferred behaviours 
• Demonstrating and understanding of why a preferred behaviour is important 
• Making amends for harm done to others or the environment. 
• Engaging children in the creation of rules to foster responsibility

GUIDELINES ON HANDLING OF INDISCIPLINE IN SCHOOLS 

The Ministry of Education and Sports put guide lines in 2001 (MoES guidelines 2001) as a way of curbing indiscipline cases among students in Uganda. It stressed that in many cases where strikes have occurred that the official procedures were not followed in handling cases of indiscipline among the students in schools. 

The Ministry recommended the following as the measures of indiscipline in schools

1. Cases of indiscipline of students should be handled by ALL relevant committees in the school system and as stipulated in the Basic Requirements and Minimum Standards Guidelines. 
2. According to the Education Act 1970 section 7, subsection 2 and the Education Board of Governors Regulations 1991 part iii-section 9 and 10, the existence, management and administration of any secondary school in Uganda must be guided by a duly appointed and operationally functioning Board of Governors. In the same Regulations part iv, section 14 and 15, a head-teacher cannot effectively run a school without the active involvement of the Board of Governors and their relevant committees. 

This is therefore to clarify: 

(i) That for suspensions of not more than two (2) weeks, the head-teacher may effect them without the approval of the Director of Education’s office but should do so only at the recommendation of the relevant disciplinary committees in the school.

(ii) That from now on, no indefinite suspension of students should be carried-out without the approval of the Board of Governors.  

(iii) That cases of indefinite suspension should be forwarded, with recommendations of the Board of Governors, to the Director of Education for approval. This process should not take more than one month. 

Please note that for major cases of indiscipline, the head-teacher (Secretary of the Board of Governors) should call for a special meeting as is provided for in the Rules and Regulations of the Board of Governors. 

In the recent past there has been a wave of strikes, indiscipline and unrest of students in some schools throughout the country. There are a number of possible reasons to explain the cause of this situation. 

The causes range from increasing indiscipline of students to poor methods of school administration characterised by lack of transparency and accountability, and good governance. However, the issue of causes of unrest will be dealt with after thorough investigations have been carried out.

this communication, I would like to deal with the way indiscipline of students and strikes is handled in schools. 

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction 

This chapter presents the methodology used in the study .It includes the research design, study population, sampling design and sample size, sources of data collection instruments, ethical considerations, validity and liability of instruments, measurement of variables and data analysis.

3.1 Research Design 

According to Tarrington (2006), a research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study.

The research design will be cross sectional survey where the data will be collected from the sample of individuals in a systematic way. Survey methodology studies the sampling of individual units from a population and the associated survey data collection techniques, such as questionnaire construction and methods for improving the number and accuracy of responses to surveys.

Both quantitative and qualitative techniques will also be used. A quantitative approach will be mainly used to quantify and analyze the data in order to get an understanding of how the variables under the study impact the overall student’s discipline. A qualitative tool will be used in the research because of the necessity to arrive at conclusions about the relationships of the study and will mainly capture teachers and school administrator’s opinions as regards to the student discipline and obtain in-depth understanding of the variables determining discipline among students in the slum environment.

3.2 Study population 

The populations to be selected are slum schools students both private and government aided secondary schools in the slum environment in Kampala.  All are mixed day schools. The slum schools are Pimbas S.S., Nateete Muslim S.S., Kasubi parents and Equatorial College.

3.3 Sampling design 

The sampling design will contain the sampling method and sample size

3.3.1 Sampling method 

The population will be stratified according to the number of students in a school. Then simple random selection will be used per class in order to obtain the required number of the interviewees. 

3.3.2 Sample Size

A total of 251 respondents will be used for this study. This was determined by using Slovin’s formula as shown below
Slovin Formula:

n =      N__            

      1+Ne²

Where:  n = sample size

      N = population size

        e = margin of error (0.05)

Then proportionate stratification method used (Cattell, R.B. (1946). With proportionate stratification, the sample size of each stratum was proportionate to the population size of the stratum. Strata sample sizes will be determined by the following equation: 

nh = ( Nh / N ) * n 

Where nh is the sample size for stratum h, Nh is the population size for stratum h, N is total population size (3430), and n is total sample size 251.

Table 1 Sample Size for students

The researcher will take a purpose sample of 60 students per school and this will make total of 240 students in the study of the four slum schools.

b). Teachers. 

The teachers to be interviewed will be those who are on the disciplinary committee who have interfaced the students and familiar with indiscipline cases received from the students. Other members to be selected are those on the governing board of governors, this is done in order to capture the qualitative and descriptive data and enrich the study.

c). The headmaster will also be interviewed in the study in order to obtain in-depth understanding of indiscipline cases, as the head teachers   tend to receive serious cases from the community and also from the teachers who are on duty on particular days.

d).The researcher will collect data on parents in the qualitative tools to capture the forms of behaviour, indiscipline exhibited by the children in the community. The factors within the community that contribute to the indiscipline among students and the forms of punishment administered to the indiscipline cases will be captured and analysed.

3.4 Sources of data

Data will be collected from students, teachers, head teachers and members of school management committee.

3.4.1 Primary Data

Data will be obtained by use of a self administered questionnaire which will be open and close ended. Key informant questionnaires will be administered to teachers, head teachers and one Focus group discussion for each school for teachers.

3.4.2 Secondary Data

Secondary data will be obtained from the available literature review, previous term report cards, registers, journals, report, newspaper magazines and written documents within schools and publications from the ministry of education. On the other hand, internet and libraries will also be utilized as significant source of data.  

3.5 Data Collection Instruments

The required data will be collected by means of a questionnaire developed for this purpose. Questionnaires will be both open and close-ended questions. Questionnaires will be administered on the sampled respondent. The questionnaires will contain short and precise questions which will be required by the respondents to fill or tick against the best option in the case of close-ended questions. 

 For the open-ended questions gathered data in order to get the respondents in depth understanding on the subject matter.

The school staffs will be given the key informant questionnaires tool in order to obtain the in-depth understanding on the discipline and academic performance of the students.  The researcher will also organize FGDs for the teachers this will also help to triangulate the open ended data obtained from the teachers. 

3.6 Ethical consideration in the research 

These ethical considerations in the research are a series of obligations to a society which all researchers must fulfill, obligations to funders and employers, to colleagues, and to subjects (Jewell, 1986).

Ethical considerations will be considered. A letter of introduction stating the purpose of the research will be obtained from the Academic Director of WALSH University Uganda. This will be helpful in assuring that the information collected from the institution will be used only for academic purposes.  

In order to address the ethical consideration, the researcher will seek permission from the University before conducting the research. Informed verbal consent will be obtained from all schools Heads (H/M) respondents and assurance will be given to the respondents about confidentiality of the information to be gathered and the names of the respondents will not be required. To maintain integrity of the information presented in the research report and respect for intellectual property, reference will only be made to documented information collected from the field study. Where reference will be made to already documented literature (published or unpublished), acknowledgement will be made to that effect. 

3.7 Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments

The reliability of the instrument will be ascertained using the Cronbach (1946) alpha test. Cronbach alpha is a measure for the internal consistencies of the items that together cover the specific factor. It measures internal consistency of items to the concept. Thus, Cronbach’s alpha test will be used to measure the reliability of items in this study. Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient is a statistic for internal reliability, values ranging from 0 to 1, and higher values indicate greater reliability. Researchers often use 0.6 as a minimum level, and so do i in this study. 

3.9 Data Analysis

The data from questionnaire will be coded and analysed by the researcher using SPSS version 16 for other univariate and bivariate analysis. SPSS is preferable because it enables a large number of variables to be tested simultaneously. The data will then be presented using tables to describe sample characteristics in terms of frequencies and percentages. Pearson correlation coefficient and cross tabulation will be used to establish the relationship between study variables and regression analysis was used to establish the combined effect on the study variables. 

4.0 Limitations of the Study

The findings and generalization of the study only apply to slum secondary schools in Kampala. The results cannot be generalized to other slum schools because there are differences in the infrastructure and learning and teaching resources between these schools. Consequently, the findings are appropriate to city slum schools because. 

APPENDIX II: BUDGET

APPENDIX III: TIME FRAME

Work Schedule:

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