THE EFFECTS OF CHILD LABOUR ON PUPILS ACADEMIC

PERFORMANCE IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN

NAKAWA URBAN COUNCIL KAMPALA

 CAPITAL CITY AUTHORITY

ACRONYMS

AIDS              Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

CFPU             Child and Family Protection Unit

CHIN             Children in Need

COPE            Complementary Primary Education

CSEC             Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children

DFID              Department for International Development

GoU                Government of Uganda

HIV                 Human Immune Virus

ILO                 International Labour Organization

ILO-IPEC      International Labour Organization-International Programme for the

Elimination of Child Labour

KII’s               Key Informant Interviews

LC                  Local Councils

NCC               National Council of Children

NER               Net Enrolment Ratio

NGO              Non-Governmental Organization

OVC              Orphans and Vulnerable Children

SIMPOC       Statistical Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour

STD               Sexually Transmitted Disease

UBOS            Uganda Bureau of Statistics

UDHR           Universal Declaration of Human Rights

ULFS             Uganda Labour Force Survey

UN                 United Nations

UNCRC         United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

UNDP            United Nations Development Programme

UNICEF        United Nations International Children Emergency Fund

UNPAC         Uganda National Programme of Action for Children

UPE               Universal Primary Education

UPF                Uganda Police Force

UPPC             Uganda Printing and Publishing Corporation

USAID           United States Agency for International Development

USE               Universal Secondary Education

WHO             World Health Organisation

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the background to the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions, and significance of the study and scope of the study.

1.1Back ground of the study

During the beginning of the industrial revolution children were forced to work around family farms, in factories, tending crops or preparing food. They work in industries and their conditions of work were very dangerous and often deadly. At that time, the industry preferred children to work because children provided cheap labour and more malleable workers (Basuet al. 1999). In 1833 and 1844 the first legislation came to ban child labour. It implied that children should not work, and the idea was to remove all children from labour which interfered with school. However many children continued to be involved as child labour which was prohibited by law (Bhat 2011). Indeed child labour was almost completely reduced from the developed world, however currently, child labour still continues to rise in developing countries because of rapid population growth, high rates of unemployment, inflation, poverty, malnutrition, bad leadership,

corruption and low wages (Bass, 2004). Child labour is taking place everywhere in the world particularly in low income countries and these children are working in all sectors of the economy, such as agriculture, manufacturing, fishing, construction, domestic service street vending etc. In addition to that children are normally unregistered as employers and working in very poor and dangerous conditions without social protection. (Serwadda-Luwaga ,2005)

Every child has the right to health and education yet each year, millions of under aged children around the world are engaged in renumerated or unremunerated work, leading to the impairment of their personal development and safety and often affecting also the physical and mental well being. Child labour which is defined as the admission to employment of a child, who is still within the age of compulsory school education, still remains a huge global problem which has precipitated an intense debate in the past few decades.

Child labour is a global problem, scaring and it is different from child work. Child labour under international standards is work which subjects children to exploitation and abuse. Children are forced to work and it is destructive or corrosive.

According to feed the children (2003) radio programme, child labour is said to be stopping the child from being a child by doing a lot of work from morning to sunset.

On the other hand, child work is educative, supports parents, and children unlike child labour which deprives children from doing what they should do, and it with pay or not time nor educative at al as it harms the health, safety or morals of children.

According to international labour organization (ILO: 1998),it states that there are many children who are exploited and abused through child labour. Many surveys have been done on labour in Uganda and their findings are quite alarming.

According to surveys on children on domestic services conducted by FIDA (2002) in Kampala, it showed that there were 522 child domestic workers. In Kampala another study made by slum aid project on child prostitution indicated that 3.5% of the despondences had engaged in commercial sex.

The (1998) international labour organization noted that Uganda like many other countries still face some worst forms of child labour like self employment (in streets and informal sector),children in armed conflicts ,children in elicit activities like smuggling and theft, commercial  sex, construction work, stone quarrying, child prostitution, photographing and bearing heavy loads. These children involved in child labour are commonly called, house girls, mates or house boys, casual labourers, Machine operators, welders, mechanics and many others.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

It is evident that Uganda has several policies and strategies to eliminate the problem of child labour through its existing legal and institutional framework at the national, regional and international level. However, with all these legal instruments and institutions in place, the rate of child labour is on an increase in Kampala, including its worst forms. According to a survey carried out by ILO, it is estimated that 3.8 million (approximately 32 percent of all children) Ugandan girls and boys are working. 1.7 million (16 percent) of these children are child labourers, majority of whom are aged between 10 and 14 years.  Owing to the urban informal sector’s absorptive capacity, it is no surprise that the UBOS study on child labour in 2001 indicated that 75% of working children reside in urban areas. Recent studies by the UBOS, that is, the ULFS (2009) results indicate that the majority of the workforce in the greater Kampala area is in informal employment. These figures showed a persistent increase in child labour cases in Uganda, particularly in the urban informal sector in Kampala. It was against this backdrop that the researcher intends to investigate the effects of child labour on pupil’s academic performance in primary schools in Nakawa Urban Council, Kampala Capital city Authority.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study is to find out the effects of child labour on pupils academic performance in primary schools in Nakawa Urban Council, Kampala Capital city Authority

1.4 Objectives of the study

This study will be guided by the following specific objectives

1. To establish the different forms of child labour that affects their academic performance
2. To find out how child labour affects the attendance of pupils in Nakawa urban council Kampala capital city authority.

• To explore other effects of child labour on children’s academic performance

1.4.1 Research questions

The study will focus on the following research questions

1. What are the different forms of child labour that affect children’s academic performance in Nakawa urban council Kampala capital city authority?
2. How does child labour affect the attendance of pupil’s in Nakawa urban council?

• How other effects of child labour affect children’s academic performance?

1.5 Significance of the study.

The study will assist other researchers with enough information on the effects of child labour on pupil’s academic performance in primary schools and hence they will use it accordingly.

The findings of the study will create awareness to government about the effects of child labour on children’s academic performance in Nakawa urban council Kampala Capital city Authority.

The study will help the government with abundance of knowledge on how to improve an organizations performance in international trade.

The study will be used in schools for academic purposes.

The findings of the study will reveal useful information to government about the effects of child labour on children’s academic performance in Nakawa urban council Kampala Capital city Authority.

The findings will reveal useful information to policy makers about the effects of child labour on children’s academic performance so that the stake holders draw linkages between Nakawa and other urban councils like Central, Makindye, Rubaga and  Kawempe and pass will protect the children from child labour

The society

These are the beneficiaries of the children. It will devise ways to sensitize the community to realize their vita role in the protection of children through giving maximum care and guardianship

The children

These are the children who are directly affected. The findings will help them to be rescued from work that is harmful to their health.

1.6 Scope of the Study

This study will focus on an analysis from an ethical point of view, the relationship between child labour on pupils academic performance, as well as its effects on health and safety of the children involved. The study will further conduct a critical assessment of how child labour affects pupils school attendance..

The inquiry will be limited to Nakawa Urban council Kampala Capital city Authority.

The study will be based on the ideas of applied ethicists and social thinkers which shows that child labour is morally repulsive and hinders moral development, and constantly referred to international, regional and national legislation, principles, interpretations and guidelines related to the protection and promotion of the rights of the child..

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses what various scholars have written about the effects of child labour on children’s academic performance, child labour affects the school attendance of pupils and to explore other effects of child labour on that affect children’s academic performance

2.1 Defining and contextualizing child labour

According to Suda(2011) the term child labour refers to when children are working in any type of work that is dangerous and harmful to children’s health or the work hinders their education. For Moyi(2011) child labour refers to low wages, long hours, physical and sexual abuse. According to Edmonds and Pavcnik (2005) child labour is viewed as a form of child labour abuse, when children work in bad conditions and hazardous occupations.

Not all work that children does is severe, according to ILO reports (2002) if a work does not hinder children’s schooling or do not affect their health physically and mentally, then it is generally not categorized as child labour. For instance helping parents at home, looking after siblings or working for pocket money after school hours and during holidays. Also Aqil (2012) assumes that not all work that children do can harm their health or considered as exploitative but it depends on what kind of work they are involved in and how many hours they work. It also depends on work conditions, or environment. However Weston (2005) argues that any work children do, can be damaging to their health because the work can be abusive, exploitative or hazardous and it can influence their health. Omokhodion and Odusote (2006) argued that any work that children does outside home is classified as child labour. According to them working outside home is usually exposed to environmental hazards which may affect their health and safety.

2.1.1 Rural and urban child labour

Child labour has been a complex rural problem, as well with children helping out in the farm with their families. The vast majority of child labour is involved in agriculture. On the other hand agricultural sector is the mainstay of developing countries economy, particularly in Africa. (Baker,2008).Generally, throughout the world rural children were more likely to be engaged in economic labour activities compared to urban children, because poverty is more prevalent in rural areas especially among those who depend on agriculture(Akarro&Mtweve, 2011). Poor rural families considers making their children work in farms, may increase household’s income (Serwadda-Luwaga,2005). Rickey (2009) points out that many rural areas lack basic services such as electricity and access to drinking water. In such cases their children must fetch water especially girls, who are more involved in housework.

Child labour also exists in cities. According to World Bank, child worker is typically a sign of urban poverty in many countries, and special in Sub-Saharan Africa. Urban children usually are involved in domestic work or sales. Their working conditions are very poor, unhealthy and crowded. They work for long hours with very low wage or no wage. Girls are usually the most vulnerable; they are typically trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation in urban centres such as Mumbai, Calcutta and New Delhi (Baker, 2008). They face many problems due to poverty. Poor urban children are at particular risk of many problems such as lack of education, healthcare and social protection (Baker, 2008). Urban children attend more to school than rural children. Urban areas provide better educational access, quality and infrastructure than rural areas. For poor rural children living far off from school, transportation cost often becomes a challenging  affair for their families (Hueble, 2008). According to Edmonds (2007) rural children work more and for longer hours than urban regions. Regarding attendance, due to limited access to school rural children are more likely to be involved in child labour. Moreover, urban and rural areas differ in the terms of how schooling and child labour are related. Education levels are generally very low among children in rural areas.

2.1.2 Gender differentials in child labour

There is gender discrimination among child labour. Boys and girls often do different jobs and its differs by country and industry, for instance boys are more economically active than girls in Latin American countries like Bolivia and Colombia, but in Africa such as Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, girls are more involved in economic activities. Girls and boys can be found in different types of economic activities. For example boys are more concentrated in manufacturing, trade, restaurants, hotels, and transport, while girls are more concentrated in agriculture and domestic work(World Bank: 2005).

Another study by Edmonds (2007) found that a large number of child labourers are engaged in domestic works who are employed by private households, for example Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia. Edmonds (2007) assumes that boys in Bangladesh tend to engage more in industrial activities than girls. Boys are more likely to be found in fishing, wood furniture manufacturing, construction site, retail trade of grocery ,while girls are likely to work in textile, handcrafting and in private household services.

Mamadou (2009) asserts that boys tend to be engaged more in economic activities, while girls are more involved in household chores or taking care of siblings. In general, girls are often made invisible in labour whereas they represent a very large proportion of working children. This is because, parents often have to decide to send only some of their children to school, and it is often the girl who loses out(Bhat: 2010). Ray (2001) carried out a research in Nepal and Pakistan. Where he assumed that gender bias was more prevalence in case of Pakistan than compared to Nepal. In Pakistan boys are more likely work longer hours than girls and rural children are poorer than urban, while it was the opposite in Nepal.

2.1.3 Child labour and poverty

Poverty create many problems such as child labour, prostitution, corruption, robbery, increased unemployment, poor living conditions, malnutrition etc. ( Owolabi,2012;Ekpenyong&Sibirii, 2011). Child poverty refers to children who are born to poor parents. Child poverty differs from adult poverty because it has different reasons and effects, for example it robs a child of his/her childhood. It may affect or bear a long lasting or psychological make up in their mind and the impact of poverty during childhood leaves permanent effects on children. Poverty influences children in many social ways, for instance that malnutrition can affect health and education which in turn may impact a child’s long term development (Ortiz et al.2012). According to UNICEF child poverty is based on child rights, these children lack adequate nutrition, lack 16 decent water and sanitation facilities, health services, education and information (Ortiz et al.2012).

Practically, poor people face inadequate basic needs such as food, clothing, health facilities etc. People who live below poverty line, live in sever housing conditions and poor sanitary and hygienic conditions. Many of them live in slums or poor residential areas and some of them lack hosing, health care and nutrition sufficiency. Although illiteracy is far more prevalent among poor people, many of them lack education or they drop out of school because of high cost of schooling. In general, poor people earn little and in such cases parents are not able to take care of all the responsibilities of their children and they oblige their children to work to increase household income (Khan,2001). Hosen (2010) showed that in Bangladesh poor rural parents can barley afford food let alone pay for school fees for their children.

Several empirical studies show the link between living standards and child labor. Krueger (1996) showed evident trend from cross-country sample, that low income households are more likely to send their children to labour market which is uncommon in richer households. Duryea, Lam, and Levison (2007) found in urban Brazil that the father’s unemployment compels their children to work to in order increase families income.

Aqil (2012) assumes that when parents have worked in their childhood their children will work as well, passing it from generation to a generation. As a result, once they are grown, they become uneducated and low-skilled. Therefore parents’ education plays a vital role in children education as it can increase the possibility for their children to have a good education (Aqil, 2012; Wahba, 2000). Fasih (2007) assumes that child labour creates unskilled and uneducated labour which in turn affects country’s development and economy.

2.2 Different forms of child labour

2.2.1 Forms of Child Labour

There are two common forms of child labour that are akin to the Ugandan situation, that is, bonded child labour, and also sometimes referred to as forced labour and apprenticeships.

2.2.2 Forced/ Bonded Child Labour

This is the most exploitive and egregious form of child labour. Bonded labour is defined as a long-term relationship between the employer and employee which is cemented by a loan, custom or by force and denies the employee various freedoms including; choice of his or her employer to enter into a fresh contract with the same employer or to negotiate the terms and conditions of  contract. Children have fallen prey of being victims of bonded/forced labour because of their tender age and easy exploitation. A study by the U.S Department of Labour indicates that there are many children in forced labour because they are too young to choose to work, and because they are actively coerced into working.

Child labourers are involved in many different forms of works, which include risks and hazards. These children are vulnerable to physical pain and injury particularly being exposed to health hazards (Levison& Murray, 2005). According to ILO (2012) the vast majority of child labour is involved in hazardous occupations such as agriculture, mining, manufacture, construction bonded child labour, domestic work and fishing. Environmental and occupational conditions can impact on the health and development of the children. Children working in different sectors such as agriculture, factories, domestic labour, sex workers and carrying out their illicit activities, migrant labourers, and on the streets as vendors etc. The effect of job and activities can vary from a country to a country. Also working conditions, ages and gender of children involved in the differences too (O. O’Donnell et al., 2002). According to Amon et al., (2012) mainly child labourers in Sub-Saharan Africa and in Southeast Asia are involved in the worst forms of child labour , which persists such as child trafficking, bonded child labour, child domestic work, hazardous child labour, etc. More than 90 percent of working children in hazardous jobs which are exposed to chemicals, and dangerous tools.

2.2.3 Child Trafficking

Recruitment, movement and eventual exploitation of children occur within Uganda as well as across the borders. Child trafficking is increasingly becoming a major area of concern. The East African Common Market Protocol launched in July 2010 allows free movement of labour within the region. However, there is a risk that children may be trafficked and exploited through this movement of labour. Comprehensive information on the scale and magnitude of child trafficking at the national level is still limited. An ILO/IPEC study (2007), however, confirmed that trafficking of children is a growing problem mainly fuelled by intermediaries who make false promises concerning employment opportunities and better life to children. The children end up working as child domestic workers (CDWs), street beggars, bar and restaurant attendants, exploited in sex, strippers and vendors. Others work at fish landing sites or agricultural plantations.

2.2.4 Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children (CSEC)

Commercial sexual exploitation of children is among the worst forms of child labour. The numbers of children who are sexually exploited are not known owing to the hidden nature of the practice. Children exploited in commercial sex suffer exploitation at the hands of care givers comprising parents/guardians, teachers and others who have responsibilities for looking after children. Whatever the source of exploitation, the consequences are usually severe. They include psycho-social problems, early pregnancy, sexually-transmitted infections (STIs), dropping out of school and early entry into work where girls particularly suffer a vicious cycle of exploitation and poverty. The retrospective survey carried out by the African Child Policy Forum (2006) established that 89% of Ugandan girls faced verbal sexual abuse.

2.2.5 Child Labour and the Urban Informal Sector

According to a survey carried out by ILO, 3.8 million (32 percent of all children) Ugandan girls and boys are working. 1.7 million (16 percent) of these children are child labourers, majority of whom are aged between 10 and 14 years.[i] Half of these children or more appear to be involved in the activities of the informal sector which excludes agriculture and is largely concentrated in the urban areas. Owing to the urban informal sector’s absorptive capacity, it is no surprise that the UBOS study on child labour in 2001 indicated that 75% of working children reside in urban areas.

The ULFS (2010) results indicate that the majority of the workforce in the greater Kampala area was in informal employment. This has been indeed due to such factors like poverty, pursuit for commercial gain and weak laws. Children find themselves employed in the urban informal sector as domestic workers, own account workers, traders, casual labourers, sex workers and in garages as young mechanics. This was typical of the study in Central and Kawempe division. These divisions, to be particular Kawempe with multiple garages had these children working as young mechanics; the Central division which is the centre of the Central Business District had many children engaging in street trading activities, head loading and off loading, hawking, begging and working in restaurants and bars as waiters and waitresses. Some of the major activities the children engaged in are explained in detail below;

2.2.6 Domestic Child Servants

This was one of the outstanding duties of girls aged 12 to 16 years. The girls were expected to do a lot of work but paid between 25,000 – 30,000 shillings a month. Work in domestic service ranged from cooking, cleaning, washing and looking after children. Despite too much work, the girls considered themselves lucky for being able to work and earn a living given the fact that they had no working contracts and were not paid promptly by their employers. Some girls retorted that they had not received payment for about six months since they started working

2.2.7 Children in Commercial Agriculture

Children form a substantial part of the labour force in agriculture. According to the ILO/Uganda Bureau of Statistics, Understanding Children’s work, (2008) the majority of working children (96%) is found in the agricultural sector in various hazardous and dangerous activities on tea, sugar and coffee plantations, tobacco and rice farms, in fishing and related activities. They face many hazards and risks, which include mixing, handling and applying toxic chemicals, carrying heavy loads, using cutting tools and operating machinery, long hours of work sometimes in extreme temperatures.

2.2.8 Children Affected by Armed Conflict

Armed conflict affects the normal functioning of communities but children are most affected. Children are conscripted, kidnapped, coerced, abused and exploited. The girls are used as sex slaves and or domestic workers while boys are involved in actual combat. Others work as porters, guards and messengers.

2.3 Child labour and school attendance.

Most of the studies up to this point have focused on the relationship between child labour and school enrolment. It has been commonly observed that in many countries, the majority of working children are enrolled in school. For example, Ravallion and Wodon (2000) found that increases in enrolment in a sample of girls in Bangladesh were not associated with appreciable decreases in child labour. They conclude that the adverse consequences of child labour on human capital development are likely to be small.

However, it is possible that working children remain enrolled in school but do not attend as regularly. Several recent studies have examined that possibility. Boozer and Suri (2001) studied children aged 7-18 in Ghana in the late 1980s. They conclude that an hour of child labour reduced school attendance by approximately 0.38 hours. Another study by Edmonds and Pavcnik (2002) using a panel of Vietnamese households, found that increases in the real price of rice, a major export, lowered child labour. The reductions in child work were largest for girls of secondary school age who also experienced the largest increase in school attendance.

Edmonds (2002) examined how child labour and education  In the TIMSS data set, no children were predicted to work zero hours per day in the home or more than two hours per day in the home, so we shrank the number of options to reflect that  outcome.

in a sample of poor black households in South Africa responded to a fully anticipated increase in government transfer income. Households that were eligible for a social pension programme experienced a sizeable decrease in child labour and an increase in schooling attendance.

While child labour appears to be associated with reductions in school attendance, it still does not follow that child labour lowers the development of marketable skills. Many schools in developing countries are of poor quality so that children may receive better informal or on-the-job training outside school. On the other hand, changes in attendance would understate the adverse effect of child labour on human capital accumulation if a child who attends school despite working is too tired too learn or has no time for homework.

Emerson and Souza (2002) explore the impact of one child’s working on their siblings. Because earlier-born children are able to command higher wages than their younger brothers and sisters, this additional income may allow parents to send the late born  siblings to school. They found that in Brazil, first-born males were more likely to work than their younger siblings. Last-born males children were less likely to be child labourers than their older siblings. For girls, first-borns are less likely to go to school than later born girls. This possibility that child labour adds schooling opportunity through income reallocations within the household has not been adequately explored.

2.3.1 Child labour and school achievement

There is indirect evidence that child labour limits a child’s human capital development. Child labour has been linked to greater grade retardation (Sedlacek et al., 2003; Rosati and Rossi, 2001); lower years of attained schooling (Psacharopoulos, 1997); and lower returns to schooling and a greater incidence of poverty as an adult (Ilahi et al, 2003). On the other hand, some studies have found that child labour and schooling may be complementary activities (Patrinos and Psacharopoulos, 1997). A definitive answer on whether child labour lowers cognitive attainment requires direct estimation of the

educational production function (2). The majority of studies attempting to analyse the relationship between child labour and school attainment focus on the U.S. and on working while in high school or college.

Lillydahl (1990) reported that working part-time in high school actually raised grade point average (GPA) as long as the student worked less than 13.5 hours per week. Working more than that had no adverse consequences on GPA. Ehrenberg and Sherman (1987) concluded that working while in college had little effect on GPA, although it raised the probability of dropout and lengthened the time to graduate.

The National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (1998), found no effects of working part-time on time spent on homework for U.S. tenth graders, in part because time spent on homework by U.S students is already relatively modest. Consequently, neither type of work nor hours of work per week are likely to influence the amount of time spent on homework. Work was not completely innocuous, however. Students who worked while in school experienced higher rates of behavioral problems such as alcohol and drug use and minor delinquency. Furthermore, the study found that students who worked in tenth grade selected undemanding classes to maintain their GPA. Some studies have found stronger evidence of adverse consequences of child labour on achievement. Singh (1998) reported that working long hours while in school did hurt standardized test scores and grades, although the effect was quite small. Stern (1997) found that working more than 15 hours per week while in secondary school led to lower grades, less time spent on homework, increased likelihood of dropout and a lower likelihood of entering post-secondary education. Similar findings are reported by Cheng (1995) and StatsCan (1994). Singh and Ozturk (2000) explored the linkage between working hours and reported that an increase in hours of part-time work lowered the number of mathematics and science classes taken, which in turn led to lower achievement in mathematics and science. Barone (1993) found that younger students working long hours performed more poorly than did working older students.

The impact of working on learning while in high school or college in developed countries may be very much different than that for young children working in developing countries. School attainment is presumed to decrease as child labour increases because working while in school disturbs the learning of basic numeracy and literacy. The more the child works, the lower the school attainment. However, the number of studies tying child labour to test scores in developing countries is very small.

Sánchez et al. (2003) using information on 3rd and 4th graders in Latin America found that in all 10 countries tested, performance on mathematics and language tests was lower when the child worked outside the home, and the impact became larger when the child reported working many rather than few hours. Heady (2003), made use of a special Living Standards Measurement Survey in Ghana that included information on test scores. He found that child work had relatively little effect on school attendance but had a substantial effect on learning achievement in reading and mathematics. The effect remained strong even after controlling for the child’s innate ability using the Raven’s test.

Because attendance was unaffected, the adverse consequence of child labour on student learning was attributed to exhaustion or lack of interest in academic performance rather than child time in school.

Neither of the two studies corrects for the likely endogeneity of child labour. As discussed in section 2, the coefficient on child labour will be biased if the parents’ decision whether their child will work depends in part on how the child is performing in school.

Rosati and Rossi (2001) take into account the endogeneity of child labour in their study of grade retardation in Pakistan and Nicaragua. They found that increasing the probability of working raises the likelihood that the child has fallen behind the correct grade for age. The study suffers from missing information on school attributes, and also from rather arbitrary exclusion restrictions used to identify child labour. Gunnarsson (2003) extends the Sánchez et al. study by correcting for the endogeneity of child labour. She makes use of variation in the starting age of schooling and other variation in legal environment across countries as a means of identification. Unfortunately, most of the variation in child labour is within country and not across countries, so this means of identification is somewhat crude. She found that the estimated impact of child labour on test scores becomes more negative when controls for endogeneity are used.

2.4 Other effects of Child Labour child labour that affect children academic performance

Child labour has various  implications on the children that affect their academic performance.  The number and proportion of children affected is not the only indicator of the prevalence of child labour, but also the type of work children do, the conditions under which they work and abuses the children face are significant factors of input. Heady (2003) significantly noted that the challenges faced by children in this world are uniform, and thus the general situation regarding child labour in this world. Some of the challenges that were spot-on included: exploitation, meagre payments, sexual harassment, psychological and physical ineptness, dropout from school and health risks. Such challenges are tailored to specific activities in the informal sector that are highly detrimental to the children’s health. Children who for instance work as young mechanics are exposed to accidents and dangerous chemical substances, while those who engage in child domestic service are often sexually harassed, beaten and sometimes not paid.

Contrary to Convention 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labour, the UN CRC and Section 8 of the Children’s Act, which provides that no child shall be employed in any activity that may be harmful to his or her health, education, or mental, physical, or moral development, these children are exposed to most, if not all risks that hindered them from having a harmless childhood life.

2.4.1 Psychological Work Hazards

According to Amon et al., (2012) the work that children engage has not only physical harm but also psychological harm in form of stunted intellectual development (intellectual ineptness). The work separates them from educational opportunities and thereby fritters away their chance to develop the essential skills they need to improve their prospects as adults. In the 21^st century modern societies, most opportunities to escape from the most grinding poverty depend on the acquisition of at least basic literacy, numeracy, and social skills through basic education. Functional illiteracy the usual result of missing school or other educational opportunities, may be catastrophic to the later life prospects of a working child. Lack of schooling therefore is properly defined as a work hazard when the lack is work-induced.

According to feed the children (2003) when the work becomes burdensome or abusive, or is divorced from the links to the family, it can have serious negative effects in the psychological development of children. If work occupies so much time that the children involved do not have an opportunity to play or socialize with other children, their social and psychological development can be intensely stunted. The most salient characteristics of much exploitive child work is its repetitive dullness and sameness, in a nutshell, it lacks stimulating variety and creativity. It has been for instance noted by Emerson and Souza (2002) that in different cultural settings, children confined to some sort of work, or who are isolated from free and spontaneous contact with others, especially children, show unmistakable symptoms of stunted psychological development.

Observers have also noted that in many working children, there is an underlying sense of worthlessness and generalized apathy and coldness that do not bode well for their future as adults. Children for instance who have not been loved and therefore not learnt to love do not make good parents. Their children end up being like their own parents as they were also treated violently and as such, unloving adults.

According to ULFS (2009), the workplace was also noted as a place that puts children into situations that are not conducive for psychological development. Children are in a far weaker position than adults which leaves them particularly vulnerable. Their lack of authority and physical power combined with lack of protection offered to them by the law, means that they have the lowest status as workers. In worse conditions, they may be subject to rigid discipline intimidation, and physical abuse against which they cannot defend themselves, as well as having little recourse for obtaining compensation in the event of injury or injustice. These conditions are not propitious for the development of self esteem, confidence, and feelings of personal efficacy that are necessary bedrock for other aspects of normal psychological development.

According to the  study by the WHO on social and psychological problems of children at work, children employed as domestic servants suffer serious symptoms of withdrawal; regressive behaviour, premature ageing, depression, inferior status identity and resistance. Children in domestic service are not necessarily engaged in hard work but the activity jeopardises a child’s psychological and social growth more than physical growth.

The study by Fasih (2007) noted that children in domestic service worked long hours and were subject to physical, sexual and psychological abuse. Internationally, studies that have been conducted in India show that on average children in domestic service work for twenty hours a day with minimal intervals. Similar studies by UNICEF indicate that approximately 90 percent of the employers preferred children aged between 12 and 15 years because they can be easily dominated and therefore obliged to work long hours with minimal payments.

2.4.2 Moral Hazards

According to Edmonds (2002) these are generally dangers arising from the illegal activities in which children engage. These activities are morally repulsive in themselves and affect the sense of uprightness of the children. Such activities include; drug trafficking, commercial sex (child prostitution) and production of pornographic materials. Edmonds (2002) further asserts that children who engage in commercial sexual activities and those who are sexually abused in domestic service are highly exposed to the risks of catching HIV/AIDS, STD’s and early pregnancies. For those who engage in drug trafficking, are highly exposed to crime (child crime) and are no exception to drug use

2.4.3 Health and Safety effects

This is basically related to the nature of work that the children engage in and the conditions under which they work, Amon et al., (2012). Children who engage in work are exposed to chemical, physical, biological and psychological hazards, which are often found in combination in the work place. Often too, their adverse effects are not only cumulative but magnified through their synergic interaction. According to WHO, occupational health and safety hazards cause not only immediate health implications – injuries and skin reactions – but they too have long-term effects that will mostly become evident in adulthood. Long-term implications of child labour include; cases of cancer, IQ reduction, infertility and chronic back pain.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the methodology which consists of the research design, area of study, study population, sample population and selection, sampling technique, data collection method, data quality control, data collection procedures and limitations of the study.

3.1 Research design

Qualitative and quantitative research designs will be used. the researcher will  use the above methods because many aspects will be covered in the study concerning the effects of child labour on pupils academic performance in primary schools in Nakawa urban council Kampala capital city authority given the complex nature of the Nakawa urban council, qualitative research method will be used because it collects information within a short time while quantitative will be through interview to cross check what has been given.

3.2 Study population and sample size

The study will target working children, key informants from with in Nakawa urban council

3.3 Sampling Design, Techniques, size

According to (Amin, 2005) sampling involves selecting a sample of the population in such a way that samples of the same size have equal chances of being selected.

3.3.1 Sampling Technique

Sekaran (2003) defines a population as the entire group of people, events or things that a researcher wishes to investigate.

The study will use purposive sampling, according to Barbie, (2001) Purposive sampling is one that is selected based on the knowledge of a population and a purpose of the study.

The study will use purposive sampling on all the respondents this is because purposive sampling helps the researcher to get specific information on the effects of child labour on pupils academic performance in primary schools also because it will help the researcher get people who are well experienced and have enough knowledge about the problem under the study.

3.3.2 Sampling size

The sample will target 30 respondents that will be selected in a way that 25 respondents’ will be working children, 5 will be key informants from Nakawa urban council. While carrying out research, purposive sampling will be applied to the above different categories of respondents.

Table: Sample size of the respondents

3.5 Sources of data collection

Source of data will be from both primary and secondary sources.

• Primary data

Primary data will be obtained from the questionnaires administered on the target respondents who included Working children, to gain opinions and practices effects of interest on small scale enterprises.

• Secondary sources

Secondary data is data which has been collected by individuals or agencies for purposes other than those of a particular research study. It is data developed for some purpose other than for helping to solve the research problem at hand (Bell, 1997). This will comprise of literature related to effects of interest on small scale enterprises in relation to the case study. Secondary data shall be obtained from, published articles, journals, News Papers, Text Books, publications Secondary data will be sourced because it yields more accurate information than obtained through primary data, and it is also cheaper.

3.6 Data Collection Instruments

The major instruments for data collection will be questionnaires and interview guide. Surveys will be just one part of a complete data collection and evaluation strategy. The major method of data collection for the study will be the survey, which will be done using selected instruments like questionnaires. The questionnaire will provide respondents with ample time to comprehend the questions raised and hence, they were able to answer factually.

3.6.1 Questionnaires

The questionnaires will be used to collect quantitative data. The researcher will administer the questionnaires to respondents in different respondents including, children workers and key informants which will be designed basing on study objectives and questions. Respondents will read and write the questionnaires themselves. The questionnaires will be close ended and will be considered convenient because they will be administered to the literate and its anonymous nature will fetch unhindered responses.

3.6.2 Interviews

Qualitative data will be collected from the informants using interviews. The interview guide wil be structured. The interviews will be held with key informants, and will take approximately thirty to sixty minutes. This will be used since it’s the best tool for getting first-hand information /views, perceptions, feelings and attitudes of respondents. Both formal and informal interviews will be used to get maximum information from the different respondents to participate in the research.

3.7Data Collection Methods and Procedures

The researcher will collect primary and secondary data from various categories of respondents and documentation respectively. For secondary data; the researcher will make reference from dissertations, print media (News Papers and Magazines), reports and books with relevant literature, policy statements, legislation and the internet. Other methods of data collection will included; questionnaires which will be used for key sample categories like; child labourers, interview guides for key informants like representatives of various NGO’s, CSO’s and government officials, particularly in respect to activities that children are involved and observation.

3.8 Quality control of data instruments

The instrument will be  taken to the supervisor to check its correctness there after pilot study will be carried out to find out if it measures what it is meant to for  and Validity will be ensured  by the fact that The data a collection tools shall be pre-tested on a smaller number of respondents from each category of the population to ensure that the questions are accurate clear and in line with each objective of the study the researcher will , It is the degree to which results obtained from the analysis of the data actually represents the phenomenon understudy, (Mugenda&Mugenda, 2003).  To ensure validity of instrument close guidance of the supervisor will be adopted. This will help to identify ambiguous questions in the interval and be able to re-align them to the objectives the researcher further will ensure reliability by carrying out Reliability tests and analysis in order to ensure that the data obtained from the field measure what it meant for.

3.9 Data processing, presentation and analysis

The raw data will be coded, edited, and arranged ready for analyzing only completed raw data will be analyzed using statistical tables and graphs.

3.9.1 Presentation

The data will be  presented to the lecturer to check its correctness this will be  done in order to ensure that the data will be of quality and it measure what it meant for.

3.9.2 Data analysis

Techniques of analyzing data will be both qualitative and quantitative

3.9.2.1 Qualitative

This is data which is non-numerical in nature will be collected by listening to the opinions of the respondents

3.9.2.2 Quantitative data

This is data which is numerical in nature will be analyzed using statistical packages of Microsoft excel, this is because excel will help in comparison with the literature review.

Data will be analyzed using statistical package of Microsoft excel and Microsoft word.

3.10 Limitations of the study

The researcher may face the following challenges in the course of the study;