TEACHER’S INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES AND PUPILS’ ORAL READING FLUENCY IN RUNYORO-RUTOORO AT PRIMARY THREE CLASS IN KAGADI TOWN

Chapter One

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the background of the study that entails the historical, conceptual and contextual perspectives. It also highlights the problem statement, purpose of the study and research objectives. Scope of the study, significance, limitations, delimitations and definitions of key terms have been highlighted in the background.

1.2 Historical perspective

Good reading helps to communicate ideas between the reader and the writer. The reader employs correct sound articulation, word decoding, correct expression and good reading speed referred to as oral reading fluency (ORF). It helps in understanding the read text to both the reader and one listening (Kim & Wegner, 2015; Rasinski, 2014; Talada, 2007).

In America (USA) around 1990s, ORF was being taught using the round-robin method of teaching (The National Reading Panel (USA), 2000). Other methods led by story method, were introduced giving more deem light in reading fluency (Rupley et al, 2020). ORF started as word reading fluency emphasising conscious and automatic word identification (Kim & Wagner, 2014, 2016). It developed into text reading fluency enabling the reader release limited conscious and memory considering speed and expression (Castillo & Wagner, 2019; Paige, 2020). Neglect of the component in teaching also affected its development (Wolf & Katzir-Cohen, 2001).

In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), ORF suffered the same as in USA (Zainab and Emad, 2020). In South Africa, failure to acquire fluent reading led to poor comprehension skills (Cotter, 2012). This was addressed with the introduction of Early Grade Reading (EGR) methodology emphasising the five components of literacy; phonemic awareness, alphabetical principle, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension (RTI, 2015).

In East Africa ORF was for long rated low, for instance in Luganda 25.8%, Lango 50.9% and English 44.8% in Uganda and Dholoho 20.2%, Gikuyu 14.5%, Kiswahili 18.6% and English 14.0% in Kenya all caused by the methods of teaching (Piper & Milksic, 2016). In Uganda, Uwezo (2016) noted that a P5 pupil could only understand a P2 text due to low levels of reading fluency. Poor methods of teaching are part of teacher’s instructional practices. To improve this thematic curriculum and later EGR were introduced.

EGR under the Global Partnership in Education (GPE), trained teachers in the methodology of teaching literacy emphasising reading fluency. The project provided schools with local language reading materials. Currently, these are the materials available for reading lessons. This intervention emphasised literacy in local language. Only government aided schools adhered to this policy. Despite this intervention oral reading fluency has remained low (UNEB, 2018).

1.3 Theoretical perspective

Teachers are at the cornerstone to guide learners to acquire ORF. According to the behaviourism theory of learning, learning is acquired from the more knowledgeable person to the less knowledgeable one (Zainab and Emad, 2020). It is done through a number of trials provided by the teacher. The teacher breaks the knowledge to be learnt into small parts or skills that must be practiced regularly. Correct trials are rewarded by praises and mistake corrected immediately. During reading, correct pronunciation, punctuation, decoding and expression amount to ORF and should be given immediate feedback by the teacher (Rasinski, 2014).

Learners need support to learn as Bruner’s theory of scaffolding states: ‘When learners are given the support they need while learning something new; they stand a better chance of using that knowledge independently’ (Belland, 2014; Mahan, 2020; McLeod, 2018).  Teachers and other adults give active support needed for acquisition of ORF, (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). This constitute part of teacher’s instructional practices.

1.4 Conceptual perspective

ORF is a very important component of reading of life. In schools, it is useful for overall academic success and in life for successful workplace (Research Triangle Institute (RTI), 2015).  It involves reading accurately with expression and fast reading of texts and it helps in getting meaning (Kim & Wagner, 2015).

Wolf and Katzir-Cohen (2001), LaBerge and Samuels (1974) and Carver (1997), define ORF as “a level of accuracy and rate where decoding is relatively effortless; oral reading is smooth and accurate with correct prosody.”  In a simpler way, Zainab and Emad (2020), similarly to DiSalle & Rasinski (2017), defined ORF as the ability to read aloud a text accurately with natural speed.

ORF notion has three indicators, the ability to read texts with accuracy, appropriate rate or speed, and prosody (Hudson, Koh, Moore & Cantrell, 2020). Accurate reading with easy word identification and decoding is known as automaticity in ORF (Rasinski, 2015; Talada, 2007; Zainab and Emad, 2020). It helps the reader’s mind to stick on understanding the text read rather than word recognition and blending.

Reading with expression and tone variation is another aspect in ORF called prosody (Rasinski, 2014; Talada, 2007; Zainab and Emad, 2020). A fluent reader has a smooth and continuous flow of reading rhythm motivating the listening ear. Prosody brings out the writer’s mind of communication. Like automaticity, prosody aids getting meaning from the read text.

In classroom teaching such practice is provided by the teacher depending on his/her instructional practices. Teacher’s instructional practices include all that teachers do to come out with a well taught lesson. They fall into preparation practices, teaching practices and assessment practices done with the intention of improving pupils’ ORF (Francesco & Celon, 2020). Instructional practices aim at the effectiveness (Lakkeal as cited by Malunda, Onen, Musaazi & Oonyu, 2016; Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES), 2012).

Svanes & Klette (2018) quote Grossman and McDonald (2008), referring instructional practices to the different approaches teachers use in their conversations with individual pupils. Teaching methods, procedures and strategies form the teacher’s teaching practices.

Saleh &Jing (2020) defined instructional practices as the action taken by the teacher in developing the lesson in the classroom. It all starts with preparation practices that help getting content, activities to develop this content, materials that will be used during delivery and the procedure or strategies of delivery and assessment.  Methods of teaching fall in the teaching practices as assessment fall under assessment practices. In using these instructional practices, one is assured of learners’ improved ORF.

1.5 Contextual perspective,

Kagadi district is made up of different tribes that include mainly Banyoro, Bakiga, Bafumbira, Bakonzo and Banyarwanda. Each tribe has a native language of its own with Runyoro-Rutooro as a widely used local language. Some native languages interchange some of the Runyoro-Rutooro sounds to those of their languages. For instance, Runyankore Rukiga interchanges ‘r’ with ‘l’ and ‘s’ with ‘sh’ as in ‘omusheija’ for ‘omusaija’. The Bakonzo pronounce ‘enkooba’ in Runyoro-Rutooro as ‘engoba’. Using the area local language as the medium of instruction in lower primary, P1 to P3, may not be easy for both the teachers and pupils of other tribes. A typical class of 60 pupils, about 30 only are native Banyoro. Decoding words and the correct native like pronunciation may be a problem. All these are likely to affect ORF in the medium of instruction language (Hu, 2015). However, no study has been done to prove this.

MoES introduced thematic curriculum in 2006 and EGR methodology in 2016 in schools to improve reading fluency. Teachers teaching literacy in P1 to P3 were trained in the EGR methodology. The methodology uses one hour for teaching reading and writing each aspect lasting 30 minutes every day Monday to Friday in Runoro-Rutooro. Uwezo (2019) and UNEB (2018) National Assessment for Progress in Education (NAPE) report, rated oral reading fluency low in Runyoro-Rutooro at 30.5% in the greater Kibaale district that includes Kagadi and Kakumiro districts. In all these reports nothing is pointed out on how teachers teach and assess oral reading fluency in Kagadi Town Council (T/C).

1.6 Statement of the problem

Teacher’s instructional practices are known to improve pupil learning and pupils’ ORF (Francisco & Celon, 2020; Svanes & Klette, 2018). Reading a text with accuracy at an appropriate speed, pausing with expression, helps both the listener and the reader to understand the read text. It involves automaticity, word identification and decoding; and prosody, reading a text smoothly, effortlessly, with proper phrasing and expression if well done that improves the reader’s comprehension (Overstreet, 2014; Rasinski, 2014). To attain this state of reading depends on how best the teacher applies instructional practices right from planning, the methods and the content, teaching and assessment activities to be used during teaching. ORF is teachable, practiced and assessed (Cohen, 2011; Parenti & Chen, 2015), depending on the teacher’s instructional practices.

However, in Kagadi Town Council reading fluency is poor (UNEB, 2018). Children read with a lot of word breaking without expression and the needed rate. ORF in Runyoro-Rutooro, the medium of instruction is rated at 30.5% by the NAPE report (UNEB, 2018). There is need to assess the effectiveness of teaching methods, activities and materials teachers use during the teaching of ORF (Cohen, 2011; Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018; Parenti & Chen, 2015; Pikulski & Chard, 2015). Preparation for teaching is a basis for effective teaching (Nurie, 2017). This is another factor that requires investigation.

In the USA, Pikulski & Chard (2005), and in UAE, Zainab & Emad (2020), noted neglect and poor methods of teaching ORF. Assessment of oral reading fluency neglected as its teaching. Most teachers assess ORF informally (Popham, 2011; Sultana, 2019). Interventions to improve oral reading fluency were put in place by the government but results still reveal low rates. If this problem is not addressed, reading as a means of communication will be completely lost.

The researcher intends to conduct continuous professional development courses (CPD) for teachers on the methods of teaching and assessing oral reading fluency. Support supervision will be conducted to enforce implementation of what was learnt. In this way teachers will be helped to use their instructional practices to improve pupils’ ORF at P3 class in Runyoro-Rutooro.

1.7 Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to explore how teacher’s instructional practices improve pupils’ ORF in Runyoro-Rutooro at P3 class in Government aided primary schools in Kagadi T/C.

1.8 Objectives of the study

This study was guided by the following objectives.

1. To identify which teacher’s preparation practices for teaching improve pupils’ oral reading fluency at P3 class in Kagadi town council.
2. To assess how teacher’s teaching practices, promote pupils’ oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro at P3 class in Kagadi town council.
3. To find out how teachers, use their assessment practices to assess prosody to develop pupils’ oral reading fluency at P3 class in Kagadi town council.

1.9 Research hypothesis

H_1. There is a significant statistical relationship between teacher’s teaching practices and pupils’ oral reading fluency at a 0.05 level of significance.

1.10 Research questions

1. What preparation practices for teaching do teachers use to develop pupils’ oral reading fluency?
2. How do teachers use their assessment practices in assessing prosody to develop oral reading fluency?

1.11 Scope of the study

The study was conducted in Kagadi Town Council public primary schools in Kagadi district. Public schools implement the government policy of using a local language as medium of instruction for P1 to P3 classes. Runyoro-Rutooro is used in Kagadi T/C. This area is selected as it has never had any research study on teacher’s instructional practices and pupils’ oral reading fluency. The study is intended to cover the teaching and assessment of oral reading fluency at P3 class. This class is selected on assumption that children understand reading more than P1 and P2 considering the number of years they have been introduced to reading. It will embrace preparation for teaching, the methodology and activities used to develop and assess ORF. Teachers teaching the sampled classes will be observed in classroom teaching Runyoro-Rutooro, using the clinical model of supervision.

The study will cover a period from 2018 to 2023, a time after teaching reading was revitalised through the use of thematic curriculum and the EGR methodology. Also, this time comes after the last NAPE report on assessment of ORF in lower primary classes.

1.12 Significance of the study

This study will be of benefit to a number of stakeholders as shown below.

Education managers both at national and at district level will use the results to make appropriate decisions during policy making. This might be used to improve the policy of using the native language as a medium of instruction.

Head teachers will use the results to improve their support supervision in their day to day running of instructional programmes. Support supervision and needs assessment will be done following the findings that will be identified. Head teachers can use the results to conduct refresher or continuous professional development courses for their teachers. Teachers will use the results to update their teaching of ORF, methods of teaching, activities given and assessment done will be based on the findings of this study.

Learners will benefit from the professional growth and development of their teachers. Improved methods and techniques of teaching ORF will improve their proficiency in reading and in turn the general learning. Parents and the community will benefit from the reading fluency of their children.

Findings and recommendations of this study will also benefit other researchers. They will work as a base for other research especially on the teaching of ORF.

1.13 Limitations of the study

The study may be affected by the many native languages used in Kagadi town council. The different sounds used in different languages may affect accuracy and pronunciation during the study. However, even if these come in on the way, the sampling techniques to be used will control their effects.

Some teachers in the sample many not give the required information in fear to expose their weaknesses. The researcher will minimize this through assurance of confidentiality.

1.14 Delimitations

This study looks at ORF in Runyoro-Runyoro in Kagadi town council. The town council is made up of a combination of mixed native languages of Uganda. Mother tongue interference of these languages may have an effect on ORF in the area of study. Generalizing the findings to all districts may not hold.

The study will emphasise oral reading fluency specifically automaticity and prosody observable through listening to reading aloud.

1.15 Theoretical framework

Definition and Theory

Learning oral reading fluency requires support from a more knowledgeable person. Bruner believed that as children start to learn new concepts, they need help from teachers and other adults in the form of active support, scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, and Ross, 1976). The term scaffolding refers to a process in which a more knowledgeable person models or demonstrates how to solve a problem. After modelling he/she steps back but offers support as needed to those learning the skill (McLeod, 2012). Scaffolding works by changing the level of support as a learner gains competence in doing a task. It is often used to help the learner attain the upper limits of their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

Bruner was contented that we learn best in a social environment, where we construct meaning through interaction with others. This is in support of paired reading to develop oral reading fluency. We learn more in the presence of a knowledgeable other person. The zone of proximal development is “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, as cited by McLeod, 2019). The distance between doing something independently and doing it with the help of another, indicated stages of development. This development may not be the same in all people. When a child is involved in his own learning, then he or she has attained the goal of ZPD. Within this zone the child should not be a mere passive receiver of the adult teaching. Similarly, the teacher should not be simply a model of expert, successful behaviour, instead the teacher engages in joint problem-solving activity, by both sharing knowledge and responsibility for the work.

In teaching scaffolding refers to a process in which a teacher models or demonstrates how to solve a problem, and then steps back, giving support as needed. When using scaffolding, level of support keeps changing to suit the cognitive potential of the child.  More support is given when a child is having difficulty with a particular task and later, less support is provided as the child makes gains on the task.

Thus, the teacher should give the possible help to the children through a number of different fluency teaching methods and activities (instructional practices). Among the many scaffolding methods include modelled reading, choral reading, shared or pair reading and repeated reading. The teacher will do all these until the learner is able to do the activity on his or her own.

It is worthwhile to note that the learner has to play his/her role during the modelling by the teacher. As the learner repeats what the teacher has modelled, shares with other learners in whole class, group or pairs, participation must be high. In such a way, the cognitive theory of learning is fulfilled that states ‘Learning takes place in problem solving situation where a learner draws his/her past experiences and existing knowledge to discover facts, relationship and new truth to learn’ by Jerome Bruner (McLeod, 2019).

This study is guided by the theory of scaffolding by Jerome Bruner of 1976 that states ‘When learners are given the support they need while learning something new; they stand a better chance of using that knowledge independently’ (Belland, 2014; Mahan, 2020; McLeod, 2018).

1.16 Conceptual framework

Instructional practices (IV)                                                           Oral Reading Fluency (DV)

(EV)

Figure (i) Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework gives the relationship of teacher’s instructional practices and the teaching of ORF. These practices have to be applied right from the preparation stage. In planning he/she has to consider the content to be covered together with the activities to develop these competences.

The methods the teacher will use will have an effect on the development of reading fluency. Scaffolding methods will be of much help to move the learner to the required levels of ORF.

Assessment of learner’s achievement during teaching should be regular and have immediate feedback.

1.17 Operation definition of terms

Accuracy is used to mean reading with correctness the actual words that are in the text.

Assessment is the process of getting information from the learners that can help improve learning. It is done by the teacher observing and analysing the learner’s work to enable make changes for better results (Amua-Sekyi, 2016).

Automaticity means to complete a task with ease and successfully without giving thought to the sub processes which are involved. Automaticity in reading will mean the reader identifies letters and their corresponding sounds accurately and quickly while recognising correct spelling to decode the words.

Formative assessment will be used to mean the daily activities the teacher uses to measure the learner’s achievement. These activities are done during teaching and learning and usually have immediate feedback from the teacher that helps the learners to improve learning.

Government aided primary schools sometimes called public schools are the schools where tuition is paid by the government through the Universal Primary Education (UPE) programme.

Instructional practices are used to includes preparation for teaching, teaching procedures and assessment that are done with the intention of improving learner performance through teaching. In this research instructional practices will mean methods and techniques the teachers use to help learners reach their zone of proximal distance.

Local language shall be used to mean an indigenous language commonly used in the community. This is the language used by most people in that area.

Native language shall mean the mother tongue of individuals. It is the first language one acquires to speak. It can be called an inborn language.

Oral reading fluency (ORF) shall mean the ability to read a text aloud with accuracy, speed and proper expression. Fluent reading is the basis for reading comprehension.

Prosody shall be used to refer to reading a text smoothly, effortlessly and with proper phrasing and expression. This is the melody of speaking that helps to get meaning from the read text.

Refresher courses and Continuous Professional Development (CPD) courses will be used interchangeably. These are short courses arranged mostly at school level to address teachers’ needs or challenges they face during day to day teaching. A session of CPD may last two hours to a day.

School based refresher courses in this study will mean continuous professional development courses (CPDs) organised, facilitated and conducted at the school level.

Struggling learners shall refer to learners having difficulties in reading. Such learners include those who are unable to decode words easily and those who lack the appropriate reading speed.

CHAPTER TWO

RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter a review of related literature will be given on teacher’s instructional practices and pupils’ oral reading fluency. It will highlight literature based on the stated objectives.

2.2 Teacher’s preparation practices and pupils’ oral reading fluency

Teaching and learning in schools are major roles of the teachers. It starts with preparation for teaching that includes getting the content to be covered, activities to be done and the materials that will be needed to aid teaching and learning (Nurie, 2017). Preparation involves identifying and selecting the best methods to be used in lesson presentation, classroom organisation together with activities learners will do (Kyriacou, 2007; Siraj-Blatchford et al, 2011). The teacher plans allocation of resources whether each learner will get one or they are to be used in groups. Setting the objectives or competences, reviewing the previous knowledge and how to manage time are all considered. All these are measured by the availability of schemes of work and lesson plans. Preparation for teaching is one of the indicators of teacher’s instructional practices. It impacts on teacher’s teaching and learner’s learning in the classroom. Despite the usefulness of preparation in teaching, no study has been made on preparation practices and ORF specifically in Runyoro-Rutooro in Kagadi town council.

During preparation the teacher plans for learner participation. Involving learners in lesson keeps their attention high and learning takes place as expected (Tian, 2017). This calls for creating an enabling environment that suits individual needs of learners. ORF develops when pupils are engaged by taking part in their own learning. The teacher should arrange varied activities which engage learners all the time. Such activities will include modelled reading, reading with children in large and small groups (choral reading), reading to each other in small groups and pairs and independent reading silently (Pikulski & Chard, 2015). To be successful, all these must be reflected during planning stage.

During planning, the teacher must put into consideration the materials learners will read during the lesson to develop oral reading fluency (Bennet, Gunn & Peterson, 2021). Accessibility will help in individualised reading that can be done every day even at leisure.

Teachers should prepare thoroughly what they will teach beforehand as a team. Consultations can be made on content, approaches and materials to use in advance. Teachers talking together about learners, teachers developing curriculum together, teachers observing one another teach, and teachers teaching one another will improve pupil’s oral reading fluency (Kilty & Burrows, 2022). Team work is also needed while preparing for assessment. Developing a content framework and test framework requires a concerted effort. No literature is available to show how such preparation relates with pupils’ ORF. Thus the reason to take up this study to find out what is the problem.

Planning to teach should be a cyclic process. After teaching the planned lesson there is need to reflect on what went on specifically on oral reading fluency. Good teachers constantly reflect on their teaching which helps them to make informed decisions (Beeman-Rygalski, 2014). Such teachers take responsibility of learning outcomes and are informed of the misconceptions learners may come up with through learner assessment which must also be planned for. Reflective practice helps future planning in reference to the previous outcomes.

2.3 Teacher’s teaching practices and the development of pupils’ oral reading fluency

Teaching practices include teaching methods and strategies employed to improve teaching. Methods like modelled reading, repeated reading, shared reading, choral reading and paired reading are some of the common and effective ones for teaching ORF (Cohen, 2011). The teacher uses procedures intentionally to improve learner performance through teaching (Francisco & Celon, 2020). It is basically used to mean the way teachers deliver lessons in classroom or simply put as the methods of teaching.

Methodology of teaching has an influence on pupils’ oral reading fluency. The method used has specific techniques the teachers follow in order to achieve set objectives. For instance, using phonemic awareness and letter knowledge in teaching, achieves more on pupils’ ORF than using other methods (Byrne et al, 2010).

Shanahan in The National Reading Panel (2005) found out that a number of different approaches are used in teaching ORF. Among the many were repeated reading, paired reading, echo reading, listening-while-reading, radio reading and model reading. All these methods and others not mentioned here had three characteristics in common; oral reading, repeated reading and immediate feedback (Paige, 2020; Zainab and Emad, 2020).

Repeated reading is one of the commonly used methods of teaching ORF (Cohen, 2011). In its operation a learner is given a text to read and reread aloud for two to four or more times. During this repeated reading a level of decoding speed and accuracy is attained in a short period of time (Cohen, 2011; Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018; Parenti & Chen, 2015; Pikulski & Chard, 2015). However, each practice should be given immediate feedback for modelling correct reading.  The gained skills can be applied to other reading texts even if they are a bit challenging. Feedback and corrective measures may also be given by way of recording the learner’s each reading practice (Parenti & Chen, 2015). This helps the learner to play back his own reading, make corrections appropriately, improving on pupils’ ORF.

Cohen (2011) refers oral repeated reading as a fun. He says it is easy to conduct and gives the reader the chance and ability to integrate the skills related to oral reading fluency. Printed language is easily associated to spoken language and it improves on the reading speed and rhythm (Rasinski, 2014). Repeated reading and pre-recorded texts develop pupils’ ORF.

Paired reading is also a technique used in the teaching of ORF. According to Cohen (2011), paired reading is related to repeated reading. However, the former goes an extra mile in self- and peer-assessment. They both emphasise pronunciation and prosody. Prosody deals with variation of loudness, pitch and rhythm which can be simply termed as expression (Overstreet, 2014; Rasinski, 2014). The teacher should put learners in pairs to read to each other a given text. The text should be based on learnt works to ease reading and correction of each other’s mistakes (Pikulski & Chard, 2015; Shanahan, 2005). As paired reading goes on, the teacher monitors progress to give assistance in case of difficulty. The researcher wishes to establish how teachers are getting on with this methodology in teaching ORF.

Besides paired reading the teacher uses partner reading method (Cohen, 2011). Several learners read a given text together as the struggling readers get support from peers with no reading difficult. They read and listen to partners who give them support in reading the difficult parts (MoES, 2014; Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018).

ORF is also taught through echo reading (Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018; Pikulski & Chard, 2015). Echo reading takes place when new text is introduced. The teacher reads through the text first as a way of modelling reading. Pupils then read the text after the teacher (MoES, 2014; Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018). It is used to model good reading.

Choral reading method is when learners read the text together with the teacher. The teacher’s voice helps learners in reading the difficult parts MoES, 2014; Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018). In this case the teacher models the ORF that he wants the learners to adapt. This is another area to investigate in this study.

Another method for teaching ORF is the reading theatre (Cohen 2011). This technique allows learner to read a story as if they are acting it. It differs from drama as pupils have no costumes and props and there is no memorisation of the texts. Each pupil reads the assigned script as if is actually acting it. It develops oral reading fluency as the teacher comments, guides and gives modelled reading. It increases self-confidence in reading thus developing pupils’ ORF.

For all the methods to work effectively, the teacher should not forget her/his role of modelling (Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, 2018). At each point he should be ready to make corrections by guided reading that models the practice. Model reading works with all methods that are used to teach oral reading fluency.

2.4 Teacher’s assessment practices and the development of pupils’ oral reading fluency

Assessment is an important factor to the improvement of learning (Amua-Sekyi, 2016; Monteiro, Mata & Santos, 2021), particularly oral reading fluency. It is carried out to see what learners understand and are able to do. Assessment is very important for tracking progress, planning next steps, reporting and involving parents and children in learning.

Assessment can be formative or summative (Amua-Sekyi, 2016; Monteiro, Mata & Santos, 2021). Both of them gather information on teaching and learning process. However, formative assessment aims at monitoring learning to provide on-going feedback that can be used by teachers to improve pupils’ oral reading fluency. Through monitoring learning the teacher can find out whether a learner is doing well or needs help. Immediate and meaningful feedback is then given. This is done as an ongoing process that helps in adjusting teaching (Black & William, 1998). Oral reading fluency requires an assessment which is diagnostic and is carried out as assessment for learning. Teachers are encouraged to assess ORF even though informal methods are used (Kim, Park & Wagner, 2014).

As ORF is taught, it must be assessed. Each part of reading fluency can be assessed informally by the teacher. Using graded level texts, a percentage of decoding proficiency, automaticity (Paige, 2020), can be calculated by considering number of correct words read per minute (WCPM) (Rasinski, 2004). Accuracy should be at the level of 90%. Help should be given to a learner with more errors in form of repeated practice. Learners below 20-30% level of accuracy requires extra instruction.

Another aspect of ORF is prosody. It refers to reading with smoothness and expression. To assess prosody a rubric is used to score the readers expression and volume, phrasing, smoothness and pace (Rasinski, 2004; Sinambela, 2017). A multidimensional fluency scale developed by Rasinski is adopted in this case. Readers who score poorly are considered at risk in that particular aspect of reading fluency. More help should be given to them.

Assessment that is effective requires immediate feedback. Modelled reading by the teacher or a peer can provide immediate correction in each aspect of ORF (Rasinski, 2004). It is aimed at improving ORF in classroom teaching though it is informal (Mellard, Woods & Fall, 2011).

Assessment uses tools to establish the level of achievement. They include WCPM tests, observation, taking notes and rubrics. In assessing ORF, reading texts or passages are used. They include poetry, scripts, speeches, monologues, dialogues, jokes and riddles (Rasinski, 2004).

A number of reports on ORF in Kagadi is place. Unfortunately, no report highlights on how teachers assess prosody. This is a big gap in literature.

Chapter Three

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This part of the study outlines the procedures to be followed during the conduct of the study. It highlights the design and the location of the study. Methods to be used, sampling techniques, data collection instruments, analysis and measures of variables will be discussed.

3.2 Research design

This research will be guided by the Quasi-Experimental research design. This design is expected to maximise rigour and to yield valuable evidence on the intervention of teacher’s instructional practices on the teaching of ORF as it has higher degree of internal validity control. The non- equivalent comparison group design will be followed with Treatment and Comparison groups subjected to pre and post-test to maintain validity.

3.3 Methodology

This research will be guided by the mixed research methods. Both qualitative and quantitative methods will be used. It will be quantitative as data on pupils’ reading fluency will be collected by use of experimental methods, pre-test and post-test. A treatment on teacher’s instructional practices will be conducted after the pre-test of the sampled learners. A comparison group will be used to ascertain the effect of the intervention.

The researcher will organise and conduct three CPDs of two hours a day for three consecutive days in a central place for the teachers in the treatment group. The content to be covered will include how to plan reading texts and to include activities that develop ORF in the lesson plan. Teacher reading aloud to model the reading, children reading to one another in pairs, children reading after the teacher and children reading together with teacher form activities. In such reading, emphasis will be put on correct decoding of words, correct punctuation marks, phrasing of statements and the speed of reading all through repeated reading, choral and paired reading. Assessment of ORF during teaching will also be included. As children listen to teacher and their peers read, self-correction can be done. Teachers will be guided on how to model reading and to use a multidimensional fluency scale to assess ORF. Follow up support supervision will be done once every two weeks for a period three months. Only two teachers will be supported a day each lasting for two hours following the clinical supervision model. Thereafter, a post-test for both groups will be conducted to establish the effect of treatment that will include preparation, lesson presentation and assessment of prosody.

3.4 Study location

This study will be carried out in Kagadi T/C, Kagadi district in public primary schools. The Town Council has nine public primary schools and over twenty privately owned primary schools. This area is selected because no any research study on teacher’s instructional practices and pupils’ ORF has ever been done here. In addition to this, the level of reading fluency both in old and young is low despite interventions received to improve reading in general.

3.5 Population

This study will include all the teachers of P3 in the nine-government aided primary schools in Kagadi T/C. More to these are all the pupils in primary three classes in the T/C. Government aided schools have been selected as they use Runyoro-Rutooro as the medium of instruction. Private schools are adamant to this policy.

3.6 Sample size

Fox, Hunn and Mathers, (2009) and Singh & Masuku (2014), advise researchers to use a larger sample size to avoid errors in hypotheses. Based on the above, the sample size will be 264 participants from a population of 759 people as guided by the table for determining the sample size by Krejcie and Morgan (1970). It will include eight teachers and 256 pupils from the eight schools. For each school, 32 pupils of P3 class will be sampled in equal proportions of boys and girls. Treatment will be done in four schools while the other four will form the comparison group. Selection of treatment and comparison schools will be done by random sampling.

Summary of sample size                                                                                     

Table (i) summary of sample size.

3.7 Sampling techniques

Schools to participate in this study will be selected by random sampling. After selecting the schools, teachers will be selected by purposive sampling. Sampling of children will depend on sex first. From each of the sex, random sampling will be used to select participants for both the treatment and comparison groups.

3.8 Data collection Instruments

Data of this study will be collected by using a number of tools or instruments. Pre-test and post test tools will be used with all learners in the sample. Document analysis will be used to collect data on preparation for teaching. Observation guide will aid in the collection of data from classroom teachers observed during teaching. For the authenticity of data to be collected, the researcher will administer these tools himself.

3.9 Measurement

A frequency Likert scale of five values will be used to measure teachers’ methodology and activities used in teaching. It will help to match what is expected to what is done. Each attribute in preparation will be matched with what the teacher has done. The Likert scale will then be used to ascertain where the practice falls according to standard. The instruments to be used to collect data will be measured to test for validity and reliability.

3.10 Validity

Test of instrument validity will be done through guidance of language/research experts. Their expertise in reviewing items will help me ascertain that the instrument measures what it is intended to measure.  The text to be used in pre and post testing will be checked for statements, phrasing, punctuation marks, intonation, stress and wording used. This will bring out content validity, the measure of the subject content (Gay, 2012). A recommendation of this team at a content validity value of 0.7 will be considered as valid (Grounder, 2012).

3.11 Reliability

The reliability of instruments will be measured through test and re-test method. A sample selected from centres not in the selected CC, will be used and the instrument tested and re-tested for a consistent score value of at least 0.7 (Amin, 2005). The passage (text) will be piloted by administering and re-administering it to help test for consistency. Adjustments will be done as need arises.

3.12 Data collection procedure

Data will be collected by use of pre-test and post-test from pupils. A pre-test will be administered to all learners sampled. A pre-training classroom teaching observation for teacher in the sample will be done. Teachers in the treatment group will be taken through CPDs on the methodology of teaching and assessing ORF. Clinical support supervision will be conducted as follow up to enhance skill development for teachers in the treatment group. At least each teacher will be supported twice a month for three months during the normal teaching of a reading lesson. Basically, the reading part of the lesson will be observed. Later a post test will be conducted to both groups and the mean difference noted. It will be used to establish the effect of treatment conducted. The researcher intends to carry out data collection by himself to avoid mismanagement of tools leading to faulty data.

In addition to pre-post-test, each learner will be assessed using a Multidimensional Fluency Scale to emphasise prosody.

3.13 Data presentation and analysis

Data collected will be edited, categorised, coded and computerised for preparations of tables and diagrams as guided by Ahuja (2001). Tables will be used to determine the distribution. Objective to establish the relationship between teacher’s instructional practices and the development of pupils’ ORF in Runyoro-Rutooro will be analysed using the difference method; post-test – pre-test (Fancher, 2010). Mean for treatment and comparison groups and standard deviation will be used to determine effect on performance on pre-post test results. The hypothesis there is relationship between teacher’s instructional practices and the teaching of ORF will be assessed by a t-test.

Objective to investigate teacher’s preparation practices to improve pupils’ ORF in Runyoro-Rutooro, data collected will be analysed using descriptive analysis.

The objective to establish how teachers, assess prosody to develop pupils’ ORF will also be analysed using descriptive analysis. This will be followed by making inferences and drawing conclusions.

3.14 Ethical considerations

The researcher will get an introduction letter from the school of Education, Kyambogo University. It will introduce him to district officials where the research is to be conducted.

Permission to conduct a study in these schools will be sought from the District Education Officer (DEO). This permission will introduce the researcher to the head teachers who in turn will introduce him to the teachers.

The researcher will seek consent from the sampled teachers by filling a consent form. One will be free to exit at will. Rule of confidentiality will be adhered to. Consent and assent for the pupils will be guided by their class teachers. Confidentiality will be maintained by use anonymous scripts but with identification signals understood by the researcher only (Clacherty and Donald, 2007). Both pre-test and post-test will be in Runyoro –Rutooro the local language and medium of instruction.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents, analyses and interprets findings according to the study objectives. It contains the response rate, demographic information of respondents, findings according to objectives.

4.1.1 Demographic characteristics of the respondents

This section illustrates the demographic characteristics of the respondents.

Table 1: Gender of respondents

Source: Primary Data

This section will analyse the study in line with study objectives as below;

4.1.1 To identify which teacher’s preparation practices for teaching improve pupils’ oral reading fluency at P3 class in Kagadi town council.

4.1.1.1 Findings on the availability of schemes of work

Table 2: Scheme of work

Source: Observation Checklist

According to the findings in the observation checklist 93.3% of the sample in the study indicated that schemes of work are available. This demonstrates that the teachers of these schools have a good teaching practice of making schemes of work to guide their study.

4.1.1.2 Lesson plan availability

Table 3: Lesson plan

Source: Observation Checklist

During the observation the research discovered that 86.7% of the samples had lessons plans with only 13.3% not having this therefore further shows that that the teachers of Kagadi Town Council have a good teaching practice of making good lesson plans to enhance their quality of teaching.

4.1.1.3 Reading materials to use

On findings if the reading materials are available for use it was discovered that majority of the schools the reading materials to use in teaching in order to enhance, pupils’ oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro at primary three class in Kagadi Town Council.

In the observation in the classrooms of primary three it was further discovered that the texts in pupils’ books was for their academic level, in some schools however the pupils had both the reading books and text books, this was important as pupils were able to enhance their reading in Runyoro-lutoro.

Table 4: Tabular representation of the findings on reading materials

Source: Observation Checklist

In the findings if the leaners had the reading materials to use the results indicates that over 93.3% of the results indicated that the leaners had the reading materials to use to facilitate their learning this observation results further shows a positive learning environment that facilitates learning.

4.1.1.4 Findings on the lessons presentation by the teachers

Reading song books; it was evident during the observation process that in most of the sampled schools the teachers started by reading song Books, this indicated the power that teachers put on songs in facilitating their teaching process. These songs were in local language. this further shows that the teachers’ commitment in promoting pupils’ oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro at primary three levels. The pupils were observed to be fluent in their local languages and both the teachers and the pupils were conversant with the songs.

In line with the songs during the observation it was further discovered that during the lessons the teachers were observed to use signal songs with sounds of letters, reviewed syllables and made predictions on the titles, this further indicated that use of songs in the pupils’ oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro at primary three class.

Teachers in Kagadi Town council were observed to have reviewed build and breaking words, this was also further done to enhance pupils’ oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro at primary three class, while others started their lessons with a song and told a short story on the text.

The observation further revealed that most of the teachers in Kagadi Town Council started lessons with a song and guided learners to form words using suffixes, while other teachers started with s songs and reviewed the theme for the week. In another observation still on the use of songs some teachers were observed to sing songs to signal start of lessons and discussed the theme of the week.

During the observation it was also further observed that the teachers started by reviewing punctuation marks of full stop and question marks at the beginning of the lessons, this study results further showed that teachers emphasized the use of punctuation marks to enhance reading fluency among the pupils in the Kagadi Town Council.

The findings during observation further indicated that some teachers in Kagadi Town council further their pupils to sing the alphabet and used sounds to make predictions on stories were made and after the theme word formation was reviewed, on the same note other teachers in Kagadi Town council emphasized the singing of songs among learners in primary three and reading sentences on the chalk board.

Table 5: Tabular presentation Findings on methods and activities during teaching

Source: Primary Data

The provided data presents an analysis of various reading instruction techniques in educational settings, indicating the frequency of their use. The techniques assessed include teacher modeling, echo reading, choral reading, repeated reading, individual reading, group work support, peer help, audio recordings, reading practice, and correction feedback. Each technique is evaluated on a scale of “Always,” “Sometimes,” “Rarely,” and “Never.” This discussion will explore the implications of these frequencies.

Teacher modeling is a critical instructional strategy where the teacher demonstrates a reading task before students attempt it independently. The data indicates a high frequency of use, with 53.3% always utilizing this method and 46.7% sometimes. This high usage aligns with research suggesting that teacher modeling helps students understand reading processes and strategies, leading to improved reading comprehension and fluency.

Echo reading, where the teacher reads a passage and students repeat it, is also frequently employed. The equal distribution between “Always” and “Sometimes” suggests a balanced approach in classrooms. This technique is particularly effective for early readers or English language learners as it reinforces pronunciation and rhythm.

Choral reading involves the whole class reading aloud together. The similar frequency distribution to echo reading indicates that it is a popular strategy. Choral reading promotes fluency and confidence, as students can practice in a low-stress environment where individual errors are less noticeable.

Repeated reading, where students read the same text multiple times, is less consistently used. While 33.3% always use it and 40% sometimes, a notable 26.7% rarely employ it. This variability may stem from differing beliefs about its efficacy or logistical challenges. Repeated reading has been shown to improve reading speed and accuracy, so increasing its usage could be beneficial.

Individual reading is less frequently practiced, with only 26.7% reporting sometimes using it and 46.7% rarely. The 26.7% who never use it might indicate a preference for more interactive methods. While individual reading is crucial for developing independent reading skills, its lower frequency suggests a need for integrating it more effectively within the curriculum.

Group work support is occasionally used, with 40% sometimes and 33.35% rarely. Group work can enhance collaborative skills and peer learning but may be challenging to manage effectively. Increasing structured group activities could foster a more cooperative learning environment.

Peer help is infrequently utilized, with 40% rarely and 40% never using it. Peer assistance can be a valuable resource for struggling students, promoting peer interaction and shared learning experiences. More training on peer tutoring techniques could help teachers incorporate this method more effectively.

The complete absence of audio recordings and recorded texts is notable. These resources can provide additional support, particularly for auditory learners and students with reading difficulties. Integrating audio materials could diversify instructional approaches and aid comprehension.

Reading practice outside of structured exercises is notably low, with 80% never engaging in it. Encouraging regular reading practice can significantly improve fluency and comprehension. Implementing more opportunities for students to practice reading in varied contexts is crucial.

Correction feedback is rarely given, with 73.3% reporting “Rarely” and 13.3% “Sometimes.” Constructive feedback is essential for student growth, helping them identify and correct errors. More consistent and systematic feedback could enhance reading skills development.

The data highlights several key areas for improving reading instruction. While teacher modeling, echo reading, and choral reading are widely used, techniques like individual reading, peer help, and audio recordings are underutilized. Encouraging a more balanced and comprehensive approach, including increased use of repeated reading, structured group work, and consistent feedback, could significantly enhance student reading outcomes. Future research could explore the barriers to implementing these techniques and develop strategies to overcome them, ensuring that all students receive the support they need to become proficient readers.

4.2 Findings on the pre-test expression of the pupils on oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro

Table 6: PRE-TEST EXPRESSION

Source: Primary Data

The pre-test evaluation of pupils’ oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro provides insight into the current state of reading abilities among the pupils. The data collected includes various categories of reading expression, absence, and refusal to read, indicating diverse levels of proficiency and engagement.

The following were the key findings

High Incidence of Zero Scores, a significant proportion of the pupils, 46.9% (112 pupils), scored 00 on the pre-test. This indicates a substantial number of students either lack basic reading skills or were unable to demonstrate any reading fluency during the test. This high percentage suggests a critical need for foundational literacy interventions.

Absenteeism, 15.9% (38 pupils) were absent during the pre-test. Absenteeism poses a challenge in assessing the true reading capabilities of the entire pupil population and indicates potential issues related to school attendance that may need addressing to ensure comprehensive literacy development.

Confessed Inability to Read: A small segment, 1.7% (4 pupils), openly confessed that they cannot read. This candid admission highlights a group of students who are aware of their literacy struggles and could benefit from targeted support and confidence-building strategies.

Reading with Little Expression (L1): 25.9% (62 pupils) demonstrated reading with little expression, indicating some basic decoding ability but a lack of fluency that makes the text sound natural. These students are at the early stages of reading fluency and need interventions focused on improving expressive reading and comprehension.

Emerging Fluency (L2): 7.5% (18 pupils) showed some expression in their reading, beginning to make the text sound like natural language. These pupils are transitioning from word-focused reading to more fluent reading, suggesting they are on the path to improved literacy but still require practice and support.

Near-Natural Fluency (L3): A very small group, 1.7% (4 pupils), read in a manner that sounded like natural language most of the time, though they occasionally slipped into expressionless reading. This group represents the higher end of the reading fluency spectrum among the pupils tested, with skills that could be further refined to achieve consistent fluency.

Refusal to Read: 0.4% (1 pupil) refused to read altogether. This refusal could be attributed to various factors including anxiety, lack of confidence, or disengagement from the testing process.

Implications

The findings reveal a broad spectrum of reading abilities among the pupils, with a notable concentration of students at the very low end of the fluency scale. This diversity in reading fluency levels suggests the need for differentiated instruction tailored to the specific needs of each pupil group.

Interventions for Non-Readers: The nearly 50% of pupils who scored 00 and those who confessed an inability to read require intensive support, including phonemic awareness and decoding skills.

Support for Emerging Readers: Pupils reading with little to some expression need targeted interventions to enhance their fluency and comprehension skills.

Advanced Support for Fluent Readers: The few pupils nearing natural fluency could benefit from advanced reading strategies to maintain and further develop their skills.

Addressing Absenteeism: Strategies to improve attendance are crucial to ensure all pupils have the opportunity to participate in literacy assessments and interventions.

The above findings therefore In conclusion indicates that the pre-test results highlight significant challenges in oral reading fluency among pupils in Runyoro-Rutooro, with a clear need for comprehensive, multi-tiered literacy support programs to address the varied needs of the student population.

Table 7: Findings on the post-test expression of the pupils on oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro

Source: Primary Data

The largest group (33.9%) scored zero on the post-test, indicating a significant portion of pupils with no measurable reading proficiency. Coupled with the 24.7% absentee rate, this suggests substantial barriers to engaging with the reading test, whether due to lack of preparedness, interest, or external factors affecting attendance.

Self-Reported Illiteracy; A small percentage (2.5%) of pupils openly admitted their inability to read, providing direct evidence of literacy challenges. This self-awareness could indicate either a lack of foundational reading skills or a lack of confidence in their abilities.

Varying Levels of Reading Expression; Pupils were classified into three proficiency levels based on their oral reading expression:  L1: Little expression (24.3%): Pupils at this level struggle to read naturally, suggesting limited fluency and potential gaps in foundational literacy skills.

L2: Some expression (10.5%): These pupils begin to make the text sound like natural language, focusing primarily on word recognition. This indicates emerging fluency, with some understanding of rhythm and intonation.

L3: Natural language expression (3.8%): Pupils at this level read with appropriate voice and volume, though they occasionally lapse into expressionless reading. This represents a relatively small group who are approaching fluent reading.

Anomalous Behavior; One pupil (0.4%) ran away during the test, an outlier event that might reflect extreme test anxiety, discomfort, or other psychosocial issues that impact test participation.

These findings also imply; Educational Interventions, the high percentages of zero scores and absenteeism highlight the need for targeted interventions to address foundational reading skills and engagement. Strategies may include: Remedial Reading Programs: To support pupils with basic reading skills. Attendance Incentives: To reduce absenteeism and encourage consistent participation.

Confidence Building: Activities to boost self-esteem and reduce anxiety around reading.

Teacher Training and Support; Teachers may require additional training to identify and support pupils at various levels of reading proficiency, particularly those struggling to progress beyond basic reading skills and Parental and Community Involvement; Engaging parents and the wider community could play a crucial role in fostering a supportive environment for reading outside of school, thereby reinforcing skills learned in the classroom.

In conclusion; The findings from the post-test on oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro reveal significant challenges in literacy among pupils, with a notable portion showing minimal to no reading proficiency. Addressing these issues requires a multifaceted approach involving targeted educational programs, enhanced teacher support, and greater community involvement to create a conducive environment for literacy development.

Table 8: Findings on Assessment practices of teachers

Source: Primary Data

The majority of teachers (53.4%) are utilizing teachers’ texts, which suggests that these texts are a common resource for instructional support. However, a significant portion of teachers either do not have access or choose not to use these texts. This indicates a potential area for professional development to emphasize the benefits and applications of these resources.

The high usage rate (80%) of pupils’ texts for assessing WCPM suggests that this is a widely recognized and utilized method for evaluating students’ reading fluency. The relatively low rates of non-availability and non-use indicate that most teachers recognize and leverage this method for assessing students’ progress.

Despite being a simple and effective tool for timing assessments, the stop clock/watch is underutilized. The high percentage of teachers who do not use it despite its availability suggests a need for better integration of time-based assessment strategies in the classroom.

Similar to the stop clock/watch, the score spreadsheet is also underutilized. This tool can be crucial for tracking student progress over time, and its low usage rate points to a potential area for teacher training on effective data management practices.

The multi-dimensional fluency scale is completely unused despite its availability. This suggests a lack of awareness or understanding of its benefits, indicating a need for professional development focused on multi-dimensional assessment tools to enhance reading fluency evaluation.

Similar to other tools, assessment records are not widely used. These records are essential for maintaining comprehensive student profiles and tracking longitudinal progress. The low usage suggests that teachers may benefit from training in record-keeping and data analysis.

The overwhelming non-availability of audio recording tools highlights a significant gap. Audio recordings can provide valuable insights into students’ reading fluency and pronunciation. Enhancing access to and training in using audio recording tools could greatly benefit teachers and students.

Correction and feedback are relatively well-utilized, with 40% of teachers actively engaging in this practice. This highlights an understanding among a significant number of teachers about the importance of immediate feedback in the learning process. However, increasing this practice could further enhance student learning outcomes.

Peer assessment is underutilized, with a majority of teachers not employing it. Peer assessment can foster collaborative learning and critical thinking skills among students. Encouraging the use of peer assessment could enhance student engagement and accountability.

The data indicates a varied landscape of assessment practices among teachers. While some tools, such as pupils’ texts (WCPM), are widely used, others like stop clocks, score spreadsheets, and multi-dimensional fluency scales are underutilized. Key areas for improvement include increasing the availability and usage of time-based assessment tools, score spreadsheets, and audio recordings. Professional development focusing on the benefits and implementation of these tools could enhance assessment practices and, consequently, student learning outcomes.

Table 9: Findings on the checklist for teachers’ preparation for teaching

Source : Primary Data

The provided data outlines the extent of planning among teachers for various aspects of their teaching preparations. The checklist is divided into specific areas of preparation, with the number of teachers who have planned or not planned for each area recorded. The sample consists of 15 teachers, and the findings offer significant insights into the thoroughness of their preparation.

Almost all teachers have planned their schemes of work, indicating a strong commitment to long-term curriculum planning. Schemes of work are crucial for providing a roadmap of what needs to be covered throughout the term or year, ensuring that all necessary content is addressed systematically.

While the majority of teachers prepare lesson plans, a notable 20% do not. Lesson plans are essential for structuring individual classes and ensuring that specific objectives are met within each lesson. The absence of planning in this area could lead to less organized and less effective teaching.

Planning for steps and activities shows a mixed result, with 60% having planned and 40% not. This indicates variability in how teachers prepare for the detailed execution of their lessons, which could impact the smooth delivery and engagement in the classroom.

A significant number of teachers (66.7%) have not planned their areas of assessment. This is concerning as assessments are critical for evaluating student understanding and progress. Without planned assessments, it may be challenging to systematically measure and support student learning.

None of the teachers have planned for keeping assessment records. Maintaining these records is vital for tracking student progress, identifying areas of need, and providing feedback. The lack of planning in this area suggests a potential gap in the overall assessment process.

Similar to schemes of work, most teachers have planned for reading materials and resources, indicating their recognition of the importance of providing appropriate materials to support lesson content and enhance learning.

No teachers have planned for audio recordings or recorded texts. These resources can be particularly beneficial for language learning, auditory learners, and providing diverse ways to engage with the content. The absence of planning here might limit the use of varied instructional methods.

There is a significant lack of planning for pair or group work activities, with 60% not planning these interactions. Collaborative work is important for developing students’ social and communication skills and for promoting deeper understanding through peer interaction.

Most teachers (73.3%) have not planned for individual reading activities. This is a critical area for fostering independent learning and improving literacy skills. The low percentage of planning here suggests a need for greater emphasis on individual reading in lesson preparation.

The vast majority of teachers (86.7%) have not planned follow-up activities. Follow-up is essential for reinforcing learning, addressing misunderstandings, and ensuring that students have comprehended the material. The lack of planning in this area could lead to missed opportunities for consolidation and assessment of learning outcomes.

The data reveals several areas where teachers show strong preparation, such as schemes of work and provision of reading materials. However, it also highlights significant gaps, particularly in planning for assessment, pair/group work, individual reading, and follow-up activities. Addressing these gaps is crucial for improving the overall effectiveness of teaching and ensuring comprehensive student support. Teachers may benefit from targeted professional development and resources to enhance their planning processes in these critical areas.

Table 10: Findings on the pre-test wcpm of the pupils on oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro

Source: Primary Data

This section discusses the findings from the pre-test Words Correct Per Minute (WCPM) assessment of pupils’ oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro. The pre-test aimed to evaluate the baseline reading fluency levels of pupils and identify areas needing intervention. The data was collected from 239 pupils, and the findings are presented in terms of frequencies and percentages. The WCPM scores provide insight into the pupils’ reading fluency, with scores ranging from 00 to 50 words per minute. The data reveals a significant variation in reading abilities among the pupils, which is indicative of diverse literacy levels within the group.

A considerable proportion of pupils (23%) scored 00 WCPM, indicating they were unable to read any words correctly within a minute. This group represents the pupils with the most significant challenges in reading fluency, necessitating targeted interventions to develop basic reading skills.

Pupils in this category can read only a few words correctly, suggesting early stages of reading development. Nearly one-fifth (19%) of the pupils fall into this category, requiring substantial support to improve their reading fluency.

Pupils scoring between 11 and 20 WCPM are slightly more proficient but still demonstrate limited fluency. This group, constituting 18.4% of the pupils, is progressing but still needs considerable instructional support to enhance their reading skills.

Pupils in this range show moderate fluency, being able to read more words correctly per minute. At 16%, this group indicates a transitioning phase where pupils are moving towards better reading proficiency but still require additional practice and support.

This group of pupils (5%) exhibits relatively higher reading fluency, suggesting better-developed reading skills. These pupils are approaching a more proficient reading level but might still benefit from further refinement of their fluency.

The smallest group, only 0.8% of pupils, demonstrates high fluency with scores between 41 and 50 WCPM. These pupils likely have strong reading skills and require minimal intervention, focusing on advanced comprehension and fluency activities.

A significant number of pupils (15.5%) were absent during the pre-test, which could affect the overall assessment of the group’s reading fluency. These absences need to be addressed to ensure comprehensive data collection and support for all pupils.

Some pupils (1.7%) explicitly stated their inability to read. These pupils need fundamental reading instruction and potentially additional resources to build their literacy from the ground up.

A very small number (0.4%) refused to participate in the reading assessment. This could be due to anxiety, lack of confidence, or other personal reasons that should be explored and addressed by educators.

The pre-test WCPM results underscore the need for differentiated instruction to cater to the varying levels of reading fluency among pupils. The high percentage of pupils scoring very low or unable to read highlights the urgency for foundational literacy interventions. Here are some recommendations based on the findings: Targeted Interventions for Low-Scoring Pupils, implement intensive phonics and vocabulary programs, provide additional reading practice sessions, utilize one-on-one or small group tutoring, Support for Emerging Readers; Introduce structured reading activities that progressively increase in complexity, use interactive and engaging reading materials to foster interest and confidence and Enrichment for Higher-Scoring Pupils.

Challenge these pupils with advanced reading comprehension tasks, encourage participation in reading clubs or literature circles to enhance their skills further.

Engage with parents and guardians to improve attendance. Implement strategies to catch up on missed learning for absent pupils. Create a supportive and non-judgmental learning environment.

Offer encouragement and positive reinforcement to build self-efficacy in reading. The findings from the pre-test WCPM assessment reveal a broad spectrum of reading fluency levels among pupils in Runyoro-Rutooro. Addressing the needs of pupils across this spectrum requires a multifaceted approach, combining targeted interventions, supportive teaching practices, and engagement with the wider school community. By doing so, educators can help all pupils progress towards greater reading fluency and overall literacy.

Table 11: Findings on the post-test wcpm of the pupils on oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro

Source: Primary Data

The majority of pupils scored between 21-30 WCPM, with 45 pupils (18.8%) in this range. This suggests that nearly one-fifth of the pupils have a moderate level of reading fluency. However, 35 pupils (14.6%) scored 0 WCPM, indicating a complete lack of reading fluency. Additionally, 38 pupils (15.9%) scored between 11-20 WCPM, and 18 pupils (7.5%) scored between 1-10 WCPM. These results highlight a significant portion of pupils struggling with basic reading fluency.

High and Low Performers; Only a small fraction of pupils demonstrated higher levels of reading fluency, with 8 pupils (3.3%) scoring between 41-50 WCPM and a single pupil (0.4%) scoring between 51-60 WCPM. This indicates that very few pupils have achieved advanced reading fluency.

Attendance and Test Avoidance; A notable number of pupils were absent (59 pupils, 24.7%), which raises concerns about engagement and participation. Additionally, 5 pupils (2.1%) confessed their inability to read, and 1 pupil (0.4%) ran away from the test, further indicating barriers to literacy development among some pupils.

The data suggest a wide range of reading fluency levels among pupils, with a significant proportion struggling with basic reading skills. The high absence rate and instances of test avoidance indicate potential issues with motivation, confidence, or accessibility of education. Interventions should be targeted to address these issues, potentially including tailored reading programs, additional support for struggling readers, and strategies to improve attendance and engagement.

The post-test WCPM scores of pupils in Runyoro-Rutooro reveal a diverse range of reading fluency levels, with many pupils exhibiting low proficiency. Addressing the identified gaps and challenges requires focused educational interventions and support to enhance the reading abilities of all pupils.

Finding on the significant statistical relationship between teacher’s teaching practices and pupils’ oral reading fluency at a 0.05 level of significance.

In order to test this hypothesis, the researcher had to run the variables in numerical order.

Ho:  There is a significant statistical relationship between teacher’s teaching practices and pupils’ oral reading fluency at a 0.05 level of significance.

4.3 Finding on the hypothesis testing

The study results indicate that the P-value 0.762>0.05 indicates that there is insignificant relationship between teaching practices and oral reading fluency. These findings further illustrate that the null hypothesis is accepted and the alternative hypothesis is accepted.

There by concluding that there is no significant relationship between teaching practices and oral reading fluency. It further shows that they are many factors that influence oral reading fluency and not necessarily only teaching practices.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY

5.0 Introduction

This chapter comprises of, discussion of findings, conclusions and recommendations.

5.1 Discussion of findings

This section presents the discussion of the study in line with the study objectives.

5.1.1 To identify which teacher’s preparation practices for teaching improve pupils’ oral reading fluency at P3 class in Kagadi town council.

The study results indicate that on findings if the reading materials are available for use it was discovered that majority of the schools had the reading materials to use in teaching in order to enhance, pupils’ oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro at primary three class in Kagadi Town Council. In the observation in the classrooms of primary three it was further discovered that the texts in pupils’ books was for their academic level, in some schools however the pupils had both the reading books and text books, this was important as pupils were able to enhance their reading in Runyoro-lutoro, this study results were also further in line with the teaching of Nurie, (2017) who asserted that Teaching and learning in schools are major roles of the teachers. It starts with preparation for teaching that includes getting the content to be covered, activities to be done and the materials that will be needed to aid teaching and learning, on the same note, (Kyriacou, 2007; Siraj-Blatchford et al, 2011) further advance that preparation involves identifying and selecting the best methods to be used in lesson presentation, classroom organization together with activities learners will do. The teacher plans allocation of resources whether each learner will get one or they are to be used in groups. Setting the objectives or competences, reviewing the previous knowledge and how to manage time are all considered.

According to the findings in the observation checklist majority of the sample in the study indicated that schemes of work are available. This demonstrates that the teachers of these schools have a good teaching practice of making schemes of work to guide their teaching work , this view was also further shared by    (Kyriacou, 2007; Siraj-Blatchford et al, 2011) wo further indicates that schemes of work are imperative to enhance the teaching process the authors further noted that teacher preparation involves identifying and selecting the best methods to be used in lesson presentation, classroom organization together with activities learners will do. The teacher plans allocation of resources whether each learner will get one or they are to be used in groups. Setting the objectives or competences, reviewing the previous knowledge and how to manage time are all considered, all these are measured by the availability of schemes of work and lesson plans. Preparation for teaching is one of the indicators of teacher’s instructional practices. It impacts on teacher’s teaching and learner’s learning in the classroom. During preparation the teacher plans for learner participation. Involving learners in lesson keeps their attention high and learning takes place as expected (Tian, 2017). This calls for creating an enabling environment that suits individual needs of learners. ORF develops when pupils are engaged by taking part in their own learning. The teacher should arrange varied activities which engage learners all the time.

In the study it was discovered that majority of teachers prepare lesson plans, this further indicates that teachers are aware of the benefits of preparation of lessons plans this view was also further shared by Kilty & Burrows, (2022) who indicated that teachers should prepare thoroughly what they will teach beforehand as a team. Lesson plans are essential for structuring individual classes and ensuring that specific objectives are met within each lesson. The absence of planning in this area could lead to less organized and less effective teaching.

The study results further revealed that majority of the respondents revealed that planning for steps and activities the results further indicates that majority of the respondents indicated that having planned their activities., this view also further shows the fact that planning for steps and activities is a good teaching practice this is also is also in line with Beeman-Rygalski, (2014) who asserts that team work is also needed while preparing for assessment. Developing a content framework and test framework requires a concerted effort. Planning to teach should be a cyclic process. After teaching the planned lesson there is need to reflect on what went on specifically on oral reading fluency. Good teachers constantly reflect on their teaching which helps them to make informed decisions Such teachers take responsibility of learning outcomes and are informed of the misconceptions learners may come up with through learner assessment which must also be planned for. Reflective practice helps future planning in reference to the previous outcomes and on the same note Beeman-Rygalski, (2014) further disagrees with the findings from the study that a significant number of teachers have not planned their areas of assessment. This is concerning as assessments are critical for evaluating student understanding and progress. Without planned assessments, it may be challenging to systematically measure and support student learning. Consultations can be made on content, approaches and materials to use in advance. Teachers talking together about learners, teachers developing curriculum together, teachers observing one another teach, and teachers teaching one another will improve pupil’s oral reading fluency.

None of the teachers have planned for keeping assessment records. Maintaining these records is vital for tracking student progress, identifying areas of need, and providing feedback. The lack of planning in this area suggests a potential gap in the overall assessment process, similar to schemes of work, most teachers have planned for reading materials and resources, indicating their recognition of the importance of providing appropriate materials to support lesson content and enhance learning. No teachers have planned for audio recordings or recorded texts. These resources can be particularly beneficial for language learning, auditory learners, and providing diverse ways to engage with the content. The absence of planning here might limit the use of varied instructional methods, this finding also contradicts the fact that there is need for teachers to plan.

In the study it was also further revealed that there is a significant lack of planning for pair or group work activities, with majority not planning these interactions. Collaborative work is important for developing students’ social and communication skills and for promoting deeper understanding through peer interaction, these findings further indicates that have not planned for individual reading activities. This is a critical area for fostering independent learning and improving literacy skills. The low percentage of planning here suggests a need for greater emphasis on individual reading in lesson preparation, this view was also in line with Kilty & Burrows, (2022) who further indicates that teachers should prepare thoroughly what they will teach beforehand as a team. Consultations can be made on content, approaches and materials to use in advance. Teachers talking together about learners, teachers developing curriculum together, teachers observing one another teach, and teachers teaching one another will improve pupil’s oral reading fluency. Team work is also needed while preparing for assessment. Developing a content framework and test framework requires a concerted effort.

The vast majority of teachers have not planned follow-up activities. Follow-up is essential for reinforcing learning, addressing misunderstandings, and ensuring that students have comprehended the material. The lack of planning in this area could lead to missed opportunities for consolidation and assessment of learning outcomes, this view was also further in line with Beeman-Rygalski, (2014) planning to teach should be a cyclic process. After teaching the planned lesson there is need to reflect on what went on specifically on oral reading fluency. Good teachers constantly reflect on their teaching which helps them to make informed decisions. Such teachers take responsibility of learning outcomes and are informed of the misconceptions learners may come up with through learner assessment which must also be planned for. Reflective practice helps future planning in reference to the previous outcomes.

The data reveals several areas where teachers show strong preparation, such as schemes of work and provision of reading materials. However, it also highlights significant gaps, particularly in planning for assessment, pair/group work, individual reading, and follow-up activities. Addressing these gaps is crucial for improving the overall effectiveness of teaching and ensuring comprehensive student support. Teachers may benefit from targeted professional development and resources to enhance their planning processes in these critical areas.

5.1.2 To assess how teacher’s teaching practices, promote pupils’ oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro at P3 class in Kagadi town council.

The study results indicated that the largest group scored zero on the post-test, indicating a significant portion of pupils with no measurable reading proficiency. Coupled with a high absentee rate, this suggests substantial barriers to engaging with the reading test, whether due to lack of preparedness, interest, or external factors affecting attendance, this view was not in line with Cohen, (2011) who indicated that teaching practices include teaching methods and strategies employed to improve teaching. Methods like modelled reading, repeated reading, shared reading, choral reading and paired reading are some of the common and effective ones for teaching ORF, he further notes that the teacher uses procedures intentionally to improve learner performance through teaching, the findings are also in line with Francisco & Celon, (2020) indicates that it is basically used to mean the way teachers deliver lessons in classroom or simply put as the methods of teaching.

The study results further indicate that the pupils have varying Levels of Reading Expression; Pupils were classified into three proficiency levels based on their oral reading expression:  L1: Little expression, Pupils at this level struggle to read naturally, suggesting limited fluency and potential gaps in foundational literacy skills. L2: Some expression, these pupils begin to make the text sound like natural language, focusing primarily on word recognition. This indicates emerging fluency, with some understanding of rhythm and intonation, L3: Natural language expression Pupils at this level read with appropriate voice and volume, though they occasionally lapse into expressionless reading. This represents a relatively small group who are approaching fluent reading, this study results further were elaborated by Cohen (2011) who asserts that oral repeated reading as a fun. He says it is easy to conduct and gives the reader the chance and ability to integrate the skills related to oral reading fluency. Printed language is easily associated to spoken language and it improves on the reading speed and rhythm. Repeated reading and pre-recorded texts develop pupils’ ORF.

In the study it was revealed that Anomalous Behavior one pupil ran away during the test, an outlier event that might reflect extreme test anxiety, discomfort, or other psychosocial issues that impact test participation, the results further indicates that Educational Interventions, the high percentages of zero scores and absenteeism highlight the need for targeted interventions to address foundational reading skills and engagement. Strategies may include: Remedial Reading Programs: To support pupils with basic reading skills. Attendance Incentives: To reduce absenteeism and encourage consistent participation. Among the many were repeated reading, paired reading, echo reading, listening-while-reading, radio reading and model reading. All these methods and others not mentioned here had three characteristics in common; oral reading, repeated reading and immediate feedback.

Teacher modeling is a critical instructional strategy where the teacher demonstrates a reading task before students attempt it independently. The data indicated a high frequency of use with majority always utilizing this method and high percentage using it sometimes. This high usage aligns with research suggesting that teacher modeling helps students understand reading processes and strategies, leading to improved reading comprehension and fluency while on the issue of Echo reading, where the teacher reads a passage and students repeat it, is also frequently employed. The equal distribution between “Always” and “Sometimes” suggests a balanced approach in classrooms. This technique is particularly effective for early readers or English language learners as it reinforces pronunciation and rhythm, this view was also in line with Cohen, (2011) who asserts that Besides paired reading the teacher uses partner reading method. Several learners read a given text together as the struggling readers get support from peers with no reading difficult. They read and listen to partners who give them support in reading the difficult parts.

The study results further revealed that, Choral reading involves the whole class reading aloud together. The similar frequency distribution to echo reading indicates that it is a popular strategy. Choral reading promotes fluency and confidence, as students can practice in a low-stress environment where individual errors are less noticeable, repeated reading, where students read the same text multiple times, is less consistently used. This variability may stem from differing beliefs about its efficacy or logistical challenges. Repeated reading has been shown to improve reading speed and accuracy, so increasing its usage could be beneficial, this view was also in line with Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, (2018) who asserts that in the study findings it was further revealed that Echo reading takes place when new text is introduced. The teacher reads through the text first as a way of modelling reading. Pupils then read the text after the teacher.

Individual reading is less frequently practiced, with only very few reporting sometimes using it and most of the respondents rarely and a significant percentage who never use it might indicate a preference for more interactive methods. While individual reading is crucial for developing independent reading skills, its lower frequency suggests a need for integrating it more effectively within the curriculum, this view was also shared by Pikulski & Chard, (2015) who asserts that Repeated reading is one of the commonly used methods of teaching ORF. In its operation a learner is given a text to read and reread aloud for two to four or more times. During this repeated reading a level of decoding speed and accuracy is attained in a short period of time.

Group work support is occasionally used, with most sometimes and rarely. Group work can enhance collaborative skills and peer learning but may be challenging to manage effectively. Increasing structured group activities could foster a more cooperative learning environment and in the same study it was also further revealed that Peer help is infrequently utilized, with most of the respondents rarely and a significant never using it. Peer assistance can be a valuable resource for struggling students, promoting peer interaction and shared learning experiences. More training on peer tutoring techniques could help teachers incorporate this method more effectively, this view was also stressed out by Padeliadu & Giazitzidou, (2018) who indicated that choral reading method is when learners read the text together with the teacher. The teacher’s voice helps learners in reading the difficult parts; In this case the teacher models the ORF that he wants the learners to adapt.

Reading practice outside of structured exercises is notably low, with majority never engaging in it. Encouraging regular reading practice can significantly improve fluency and comprehension. Implementing more opportunities for students to practice reading in varied contexts is crucial, on the same view it was also revealed that correction feedback is rarely given, with majority reporting “Rarely” and only a few “Sometimes.” Constructive feedback is essential for student growth, helping them identify and correct errors. More consistent and systematic feedback could enhance reading skills development, Cohen (2011) stresses out that learners are to read a story as if they are acting it. It differs from drama as pupils have no costumes and props and there is no memorisation of the texts. Each pupil reads the assigned script as if is actually acting it. It develops oral reading fluency as the teacher comments, guides and gives modelled reading. It increases self-confidence in reading thus developing pupils’ ORF.

The complete absence of audio recordings and recorded texts is notable. These resources can provide additional support, particularly for auditory learners and students with reading difficulties. Integrating audio materials could diversify instructional approaches and aid comprehension.

The data highlights several key areas for improving reading instruction. While teacher modeling, echo reading, and choral reading are widely used, techniques like individual reading, peer help, and audio recordings are underutilized. Encouraging a more balanced and comprehensive approach, including increased use of repeated reading, structured group work, and consistent feedback, could significantly enhance student reading outcomes. Future research could explore the barriers to implementing these techniques and develop strategies to overcome them, ensuring that all students receive the support they need to become proficient readers.

Teachers may require additional training to identify and support pupils at various levels of reading proficiency, particularly those struggling to progress beyond basic reading skills and Parental and Community Involvement; Engaging parents and the wider community could play a crucial role in fostering a supportive environment for reading outside of school, thereby reinforcing skills learned in the classroom, the findings from the post-test on oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro reveal significant challenges in literacy among pupils, with a notable portion showing minimal to no reading proficiency. Addressing these issues requires a multifaceted approach involving targeted educational programs, enhanced teacher support, and greater community involvement to create a conducive environment for literacy development, the study further indicates that Pikulski & Chard, (2015) who asserts that the teacher should put learners in pairs to read to each other a given text. The text should be based on learnt works to ease reading and correction of each other’s mistakes.

The findings in the study further indicates that Methodology of teaching has an influence on pupils’ oral reading fluency. The method used has specific techniques the teachers follow in order to achieve set objectives. For instance, using phonemic awareness and letter knowledge in teaching, achieves more on pupils’ ORF than using other methods. The study results further indicate that self-Reported Illiteracy of pupils openly admitted their inability to read, providing direct evidence of literacy challenges. This self-awareness could indicate either a lack of foundational reading skills or a lack of confidence in their abilities.

5.1.3 To find out how teachers, use their assessment practices to assess prosody to develop pupils’ oral reading fluency at P3 class in Kagadi town council.

The majority of respondents indicated that utilizing teachers’ texts, which suggests that these texts are a common resource for instructional support. However, a significant portion of teachers either do not have access or choose not to use these texts. This indicates a potential area for professional development to emphasize the benefits and applications of these resources, this view was also in line with Monteiro, Mata & Santos, (2021) who suggested that assessment is an important factor to the improvement of learning, particularly oral reading fluency. It is carried out to see what learners understand and are able to do. Assessment is very important for tracking progress, planning next steps, reporting and involving parents and children in learning.

The study results further indicate that the high usage rate of pupils’ texts for assessing WCPM suggests that this is a widely recognized and utilized method for evaluating students’ reading fluency. The relatively low rates of non-availability and non-use indicate that most teachers recognize and leverage this method for assessing students’ progress, this view was also in line with (Amua-Sekyi, 2016; Monteiro, Mata & Santos, 2021) who indicates that assessment can be formative or summative. Both of them gather information on teaching and learning process. However, formative assessment aims at monitoring learning to provide on-going feedback that can be used by teachers to improve pupils’ oral reading fluency. Through monitoring learning the teacher can find out whether a learner is doing well or needs help. Immediate and meaningful feedback is then given.

Despite being a simple and effective tool for timing assessments, the stop clock/watch is underutilized. The high percentage of teachers who do not use it despite its availability suggests a need for better integration of time-based assessment strategies in the classroom. Similar to the stop clock/watch, the score spreadsheet is also underutilized. This tool can be crucial for tracking student progress over time, and its low usage rate points to a potential area for teacher training on effective data management practices, this was also stressed by Black & William, (1998) who asserts that Oral reading fluency requires an assessment which is diagnostic and is carried out as assessment for learning. Teachers are encouraged to assess ORF even though informal methods are used. (Kim, Park & Wagner, 2014).

The multi-dimensional fluency scale is completely unused despite its availability. This suggests a lack of awareness or understanding of its benefits, indicating a need for professional development focused on multi-dimensional assessment tools to enhance reading fluency evaluation, Similar to other tools, assessment records are not widely used. These records are essential for maintaining comprehensive student profiles and tracking longitudinal progress. The low usage suggests that teachers may benefit from training in record-keeping and data analysis, this view was also shared by Paige, (2020) who asserted that as ORF is taught, it must be assessed. Each part of reading fluency can be assessed informally by the teacher. Using graded level texts, a percentage of decoding proficiency, automaticity, can be calculated by considering number of correct words read per minute (WCPM).

The overwhelming non-availability of audio recording tools highlights a significant gap. Audio recordings can provide valuable insights into students’ reading fluency and pronunciation. Enhancing access to and training in using audio recording tools could greatly benefit teachers and students, Correction and feedback are relatively well-utilized, with most of teachers actively engaging in this practice. This highlights an understanding among a significant number of teachers about the importance of immediate feedback in the learning process. However, increasing this practice could further enhance student learning outcomes, this view was also further shared by Sinambela, (2017) who stated that another aspect of ORF is prosody. It refers to reading with smoothness and expression. To assess prosody a rubric is used to score the readers expression and volume, phrasing, smoothness and pace. A multidimensional fluency scale developed. Readers who score poorly are considered at risk in that particular aspect of reading fluency. More help should be given to them.

Peer assessment is underutilized, with a majority of teachers not employing it. Peer assessment can foster collaborative learning and critical thinking skills among students. Encouraging the use of peer assessment could enhance student engagement and accountability.The data indicates a varied landscape of assessment practices among teachers. While some tools, such as pupils’ texts (WCPM), are widely used, others like stop clocks, score spreadsheets, and multi-dimensional fluency scales are underutilized. Key areas for improvement include increasing the availability and usage of time-based assessment tools, score spreadsheets, and audio recordings. Professional development focusing on the benefits and implementation of these tools could enhance assessment practices and, consequently, student learning outcomes, this finding was also further stressed by Rasinski, (2004) who indicated that assessment uses tools to establish the level of achievement. They include WCPM tests, observation, taking notes and rubrics. In assessing ORF, reading texts or passages are used. They include poetry, scripts, speeches, monologues, dialogues, jokes and riddles.

5.2 Conclusion of the study

The research findings on the availability and utilization of reading materials for teaching oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro at the primary three level in Kagadi Town Council reveal several significant insights. , the conclusion is below;

Most schools in Kagadi Town Council possess reading materials appropriate for the primary three academic level. These materials include both reading books and textbooks, crucial for enhancing pupils’ reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro. The availability of reading materials aligns with the need to support oral reading fluency, indicating a well-equipped learning environment in many schools, A notable observation was the prevalent use of songbooks and signal songs in local languages by teachers. Songs were frequently used at the beginning of lessons to facilitate teaching. Teachers’ reliance on songs demonstrates a strong commitment to promoting pupils’ oral reading fluency. Songs were used to introduce sounds, syllables, and themes, making the learning process engaging and effective.

Individual Reading is Not frequently practiced, indicating a preference for interactive methods. While crucial for independent reading skills, its lower frequency suggests a need for better integration within the curriculum, Group Work Support and Peer Help Occasionally used, with group work fostering collaborative skills and peer learning. However, peer help is rarely utilized, indicating potential underuse of valuable peer-assisted learning strategies.

Audio Recordings is completely absent, highlighting a missed opportunity to support auditory learners and students with reading difficulties. Integrating audio materials could diversify instructional methods, Notably low, with a high percentage of “Never” responses. Encouraging regular reading practice can significantly enhance fluency and comprehension. Rarely given, despite its importance in helping students identify and correct errors. More systematic feedback could enhance reading skills development, while teacher modeling, echo reading, and choral reading are widely used, other techniques like individual reading, peer help, and audio recordings are underutilized. A balanced and comprehensive approach, including increased use of repeated reading, structured group work, and consistent feedback, is essential for improving student reading outcomes. There is need for Enhanced Peer Help and Group Work: Provide training for teachers on peer tutoring techniques and structured group activities to foster collaborative learning. Incorporate audio materials to support diverse learning styles and assist students with reading difficulties. Create opportunities for students to engage in regular reading practice outside of structured exercises.

The research highlights a diverse range of assessment practices among teachers, with notable areas for both commendation and improvement, utilizing teachers’ texts underscores the importance of these resources in instructional support. However, the significant portion of teachers who either lack access to or choose not to use these texts suggests an opportunity for targeted professional development to emphasize their benefits and practical applications. Pupils’ texts for assessing Words Correct Per Minute (WCPM) indicates a strong recognition of this method for evaluating reading fluency. The low rates of non-availability and non-use of pupils’ texts reflect a widespread acceptance and utilization among teachers for student progress assessment.

Conversely, the stop clock/watch, despite being a simple and effective tool for timing assessments, remains underutilized. This gap signals a need for better integration and training on time-based assessment strategies within the classroom environment. Similarly, the low usage of score spreadsheets, which are essential for tracking student progress over time, highlights a potential area for improvement in data management practices through targeted teacher training. The complete lack of utilization of the multi-dimensional fluency scale, despite its availability, points to a significant gap in awareness or understanding of its benefits. Professional development initiatives focusing on the advantages and practical applications of multi-dimensional assessment tools could substantially enhance reading fluency evaluation. Moreover, the underutilization of assessment records, critical for maintaining comprehensive student profiles and tracking longitudinal progress, indicates a need for training in effective record-keeping and data analysis. This would support teachers in maintaining detailed and useful student progress documentation. The overwhelming non-availability of audio recording tools presents a significant gap in resources. Audio recordings can provide invaluable insights into students’ reading fluency and pronunciation, suggesting that improved access to and training in the use of these tools could significantly benefit both teachers and students. The practice of correction and feedback is relatively well-utilized, with 40% of teachers engaging in it actively. This demonstrates an understanding among a substantial number of teachers regarding the importance of immediate feedback in the learning process. Expanding this practice could further enhance student learning outcomes. Lastly, the underutilization of peer assessment, with a majority of teachers not employing it, represents an opportunity to foster collaborative learning and critical thinking skills among students. Encouraging the adoption of peer assessment could enhance student engagement and accountability.

In summary, while certain assessment tools like pupils’ texts for WCPM are widely utilized, there is a clear need to increase the availability and usage of time-based assessment tools, score spreadsheets, multi-dimensional fluency scales, and audio recordings. Professional development focusing on the benefits and effective implementation of these tools could significantly enhance assessment practices and thereby improve student learning outcomes.

The research findings on the availability and utilization of reading materials for teaching oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro at the primary three level in Kagadi Town Council highlight several critical areas for improvement and development. Based on these findings, the following recommendations are proposed to enhance the effectiveness of teaching practices and improve student reading outcomes. Develop strategies to integrate individual reading practices more frequently within the curriculum. This could include dedicated time slots for silent reading and personalized reading assignments. Provide professional development for teachers on the importance of individual reading and techniques to monitor and support students during these sessions.

Kagadi town council schools need to diversify Learning Tools and to Integrate audio materials such as recordings of fluent reading, audiobooks, and language-learning software to cater to auditory learners and students with reading difficulties. Ensure the availability of necessary audio equipment and resources in classrooms to facilitate this integration.

There is need to Establish regular reading programs and initiatives that encourage students to read both in and out of the classroom. This could include reading challenges, book clubs, and library visits, Engage parents and guardians in supporting regular reading practices at home through workshops and resources.

Develop systematic approaches for providing feedback to students on their reading performance. This could involve regular assessments, personalized feedback sessions, and corrective exercises, there is need to conduct workshops on effective feedback techniques that help students identify and correct their errors, thus improving their reading skills.

Provide training for teachers on the use and benefits of stop clocks/watches for timing assessments, which can improve the accuracy and effectiveness of reading fluency evaluations. Encourage the use of score spreadsheets for tracking student progress over time. Training on data management and analysis should be provided to ensure effective utilization of these tools. Increase awareness and understanding of multi-dimensional fluency scales among teachers through targeted professional development sessions. Highlight the benefits and practical applications of these comprehensive assessment tools. Implement training programs on effective record-keeping and data analysis to help teachers maintain detailed and useful student progress documentation. This can support more informed instructional decisions and interventions.

Encourage the regular use of assessment records to track longitudinal progress and identify areas for targeted support. Foster a culture of regular and constructive feedback in the classroom. Share best practices and successful strategies among teachers to enhance the feedback process. Encourage continuous improvement and adaptation of feedback techniques to meet the evolving needs of students.

Promote the adoption of peer assessment techniques to foster collaborative learning and critical thinking skills. Provide guidelines and support for effective implementation. Engage students in the assessment process, making them more accountable and reflective about their learning journey. Implementing these recommendations can address the identified gaps and enhance the overall quality of teaching oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro at the primary three level in Kagadi Town Council. By increasing the availability and utilization of diverse reading materials and assessment tools, and through targeted professional development, teachers can significantly improve student reading outcomes.

5.3 Recommendation of the study

There is need to Allocate dedicated time slots within the curriculum for silent reading and personalized reading assignments. This can help develop independent reading skills crucial for student progression. Conduct professional development sessions emphasizing the importance of individual reading and providing strategies for monitoring and supporting students during these sessions.

Integrate audio materials, such as recordings of fluent reading, audiobooks, and language-learning software, to support auditory learners and students with reading difficulties. Ensure classrooms are equipped with the necessary audio equipment and resources to facilitate the use of these audio materials effectively.

Develop programs like reading challenges, book clubs, and library visits to encourage consistent reading practices both in and outside the classroom. Organize workshops and provide resources for parents and guardians to support regular reading habits at home.

Implement systematic approaches for providing feedback through regular assessments and personalized feedback sessions. Conduct workshops on effective feedback techniques to help students identify and correct their reading errors, thereby improving their reading skills.

There is need to Provide training for teachers on the use of stop clocks/watches to enhance the accuracy and effectiveness of reading fluency evaluations.: Encourage the use of score spreadsheets for tracking student progress over time. Offer training on data management and analysis to maximize the effectiveness of these tools.

Increase awareness and understanding of multi-dimensional fluency scales through targeted professional development sessions, highlighting their benefits and practical applications.

There is need to Implement training programs focused on effective record-keeping and data analysis. This will assist teachers in maintaining detailed student progress documentation, supporting informed instructional decisions.  Encourage teachers to regularly utilize assessment records to track longitudinal progress and identify areas for targeted support.

Foster a classroom culture that values regular and constructive feedback. Share best practices and successful strategies among teachers to enhance the feedback process. There is need to Promote continuous improvement and adaptation of feedback techniques to meet the evolving needs of students.

There is need to encourage the adoption of peer assessment techniques to foster collaborative learning and critical thinking skills. Provide guidelines and support for effective implementation. Engage students in the assessment process, making them more accountable and reflective about their learning journey. Implementing these recommendations can significantly improve the quality of teaching oral reading fluency in Runyoro-Rutooro at the primary three level in Kagadi Town Council. By increasing the availability and utilization of diverse reading materials and assessment tools, and through targeted professional development, teachers can enhance student reading outcomes and create a more effective and engaging learning environment.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Text to be used in pre and post-test for ORF at P3 class

Omuntu ojunwa ekyawe

Ekiro kimu, nkaba ndi haisomero omu kizaaniro ninzaana na bagenzi bange. Ensahu yange ey’ebitabu yabura. Nkagenda omw’omwegesa namugambira nti, “Ensahu yange ey’ebitabu ebuzire.” Omwegesa yagarukamu nti, “Tugende nkukoonyere tugiserre.” Tukaserra hoonahoona ensahu yaburra kimu. Obunataahire omuka nkabanza natiina kugambira Mukaaka. Baitu uwe akandora yamanya nti nyine ekintuntwize. Akankaguza, “Ayesiga obaireki?” namugarukamu nincura nti, “Ensahu yange eyebitabu ebuzire!” Mukaaka akankaguza ati, “Hati okugenda kwiha nkaha sente ezindi zokugura ebitabu nekalaamu?” Hakaba hataroho kitungwa kyoona eky’okutunda. Nkatuntura muno.

Nkagumya nintuga ekiteekerezo nakaguza Mukaaka nti, “Baitu Mukaaka omu musiri kaliyo enjagi nyingi, titusobora kutundaho tukaihamu sente?” Mukaaka yagarukamu ati, “Gyayo orole.” Nkagyayo nasanga ziriyo nyingi muno buli kikoro nikinaina. Nkeeta Mukaaka aije arole. Obuyarozire obwingi bw’enjagi yatenga ati, “Ee mawe, enjagi zange kazasiisikara!” nanyowe nagarukamu nti, “Mali zagya kusiisikara, dora n’ezindi zitandikire kwenga.” Na Mukaaka yagamba ati, “Genda oleete akagega tuzinoge.” Tukanoga enjagi akagega kaijura. Naleeta ebiibo bibiri nabyo byaijura. Nazipakiira omu katutiya. Obwire nibukya nkahurra Mukaaka naanyeta ngu, ‘Iwe Ayesiga, okyabyamire, oyeberwe omulimo guturaire nagwo!”

Adopted from Nsobora Kusoma Nokuhandiika, P3 Teacher’s Guide, Runyoro-Rutooro pg 171.

Literary description of the Pre-post-test text

You are liberated by your possessions

One day, I was at school in the playground playing with my peers. My school bag got lost with all its contents. I went to the teacher and told him, ‘My school bag is lost.’ The teacher answered, “Let us go and I help you to find it.” We searched everywhere for the bag but in vain. When I went back home, I was afraid to tell my grandmother. She however saw me worried and suspected something to have happened. She asked me, ‘Ayesiga, what happened to you?’ I answered her in tears, “My school bag is lost.” Grandmother asked, ‘where are you going to get the money from to buy other books and pencils?’ there was nothing to sell at that time. I was greatly disturbed.

Suddenly, an idea came to my mind. I told her ‘We have plenty of eggplant fruits in the garden, can’t we sell some to get money?’ ‘Go and check,’ she told me. I went and found plenty of them ready. I called her to come and see. She was amazed at the many fruits she saw, ‘won’t all these be wasted!’ ‘Sure! They are soon getting wasted.’ She ordered me get a basket to collect all of them. We collected and filled the basket. I collected more two baskets and they were filled. I put all in a gunny bag. Early in the morning I heard her calling me, ‘Ayesiga, you have forgotten the task we had last evening!’

Appendix 2: Observation for classroom teaching observation

                                                      OBSERVATION FORM

School ID………………Teacher ID…………………… Class……Date…………..

1. PREPARATION
2. a) Scheme of work (Detailed and completeness) ……………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
3. b) Lesson plan (Detailed, regularity, completeness, assessment shown) ……………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………
4. c) Instructional/ Reading materials to use(Appropriate) …………..…………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. LESSON PRESENTATION
6. a) Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

1. b) Methods and activities during teaching

3. ASSESSMENT

WAY FORWARD/ACTION TO BE TAKEN

Supervisor…………………………………         Teacher……………………………………

Name………………………………………          Name ……………………………………

Adapted from school practice supervision form of Kyambogo University and Rasinski 2004.

Appendix 3: Checklist; Preparation for teaching

Appendix 4: Multidimensional Fluency Scale

Adopted from Rasinski (2004) and Morrison and Wilcox, (2020) for assessing prosody