CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the review of related literature from different scholars concerning evaluating the effect of premarital sex on the girl child education in secondary schools in Kampala district. This discussion in accordance with the research objectives of the study, causes of premarital sex and its effects, rate at which girl child education is affected by premarital sex, and the knowledge secondary schools have about premarital sex.

2.1 Causes of premarital sex and its effects

Curiosity is a strong desire to know or learn something. According to Bisi Adwale December (2010), many youths have engaged in premarital sex as a result of curiosity. They thought they were searching for reality but they ended up destroying themselves. They are not satisfied with what their parents, pastors, and Christians friends told them everything concerning sex but they wanted to experience it themselves.  Studies show that children as young as 11 years old age engage in premarital sex. Teens today are more curious than ever, that today teens explore their bodies a lot. (Kagemoon, 2011, cause effect of premarital sex, a58mbalina).

Media first of all is a device designed to be consumed by large audiences through agencies of technology. Media influences on sexual behavior were first reported in 1981 and since then several overviews have examined the adolescent use of media as a source of information and its possible effect on their sexual behaviors. (NCBI, 2014). Television in form of films and videos has contributed to the high rate of premarital sex. What youths watch on screen determine their behavior and chasten every product advertised on it is just promoting sex. In fact, to advertise food item they use, film, television and radios promotes premarital sex. (Bisi Adwale 2010). Rebecca l. Collins et al, (2011), asserts that over the past decades, new research has identified media as having a potential to serve both roles, with its evolving landscape at a startling pace are emerging. Given this, more traditional media use with initiation of various sexual activities, to the extent that new media contains relevant sexual messages. Researchers have identified that these media are linked to developing sexual attitudes and behaviors and could affect sexual risk taking and health (either in a positive or negative manner) as well. A cross sectional study was carried out in Oshogbo Metropolis, South Western  Nigeria, about the effectiveness of mass media and internet on sexual behavior of undergraduates, but it was  noted that 38.3% and 24.2% out of selected 400 students used Internet, Radio and TV respectively as sources of information on sexual issues, for example, surfing pornography and so on, because  accessing the internet for sexual materials or movies was acceptable to 25.3% of them, thus promoting the urge to premarital sex. NCBI, Jan 2010)

A relationship is a way in which two or more concepts, or people are connected Kagemoon,(2011)urged that rough relationships where in the couples have some uncontrollable and wild ways of showing of affection with one another, thinking that doing this acts might seal their relationships forever. A study was conducted in (2006) that analyzed the Toledo, adolescent relationship found that more boys report having non dating sexual partners than girls, a third of the boys only have had sex with their romantic partners. Another third also reported having sex with a partner they are not dating within the past year are believed to wish for the girl to be their girlfriend. Many young adults are more likely to engage in sex with romantic partners with casual acquaintances or Friends With Benefits, (FWBs). (Wikipedia source.) In most Ugandan secondary schools, most engage in this premarital sex behavior simply because their partners threaten to chuck them and promise to embarrass them if they don’t have sex  the Problem in parent child relationships, which may have encouraged the adolescents to seek comfort acceptance and consolation through sexual activity. This happens in families where children have less quality time with their parents (R. Langham 2015). Kagemoon,(2011), asserts that premarital sex is caused by dating, which he defines any activity in which your romantic interest is focused., he further says that teenagers as 11 -20 partake in dating and interaction and sexual intercourse with the opposite sex, thus relationships also contribute to the premarital sex in secondary school girls.

Appear is a person who has equal standing with another as in rank, age. Peer pressure is the influence from members of one’s peer group. Its blamed for the increase of premarital sex too.  Some men do mount pressure physically on their partners while ladies mount their fellow ladies pressure by dressing carelessly to seduce man exposing their nakedness that later lures most to sexual acts. Adwale,(2010).  Some people who engage in premarital sex say they were pressured into it by friends, some decided to engaged in this sexual act because of their desire to belong to a group of people who claim to be in control of everyone one around them to have a purposeful living 011). Several studies have indicated that peer’s sexual attitudes are closely associated with adolescent’s sexual behaviors (Raffaelli & Crocketti, 2003), in addition, peer pressure, may increase risk taking such as engaging in sexual behaviors (Jaccard et al 2005). It was found out in a study that the old adolescents engaging in premarital sex increased 1.65 times when his or her best friend had engaged in such behavior. Such evidence has led to researchers to conclude that an adolescent sexual behavior is influenced by their peers. (adolescent premaritalsex, (2010)April), that is to say, most girls who engaged in premarital sex are influenced by their peers seem who to have achieved luxurious life from having to engage in the sexual act with their boyfriends. (R.Y Langham PhD, (2015)

Drug abuse, is the habit of taking addictive or illegal drugs. In (2005), among those high school students who reported being currently sexually active (defined as having had sexual intercourse in three months prior to the survey), 235(105 females and 8% of males) reported having used alcohol or drugs that last time they had sexual intercourse. Still (2005), among those high school students who reported being currently sexually active ( defined as having had sexual intercourse in three months prior to the survey), 14% of black students, 26% of Hispanic students used drugs or alcohol.( Sexed library, CDC and the youth risk behavior surveillance system2005), studies commissioned by UNICEF in (1999, Kivumbi et al) show that drugs as an emerging problem among adolescents, captured boys who now smoke cigarettes, drink local brews and there an increasing use of opium and marijuana that alternates their minds and they engage in sexual behaviors unwarily with people around them of the opposite sex. R, YLangham (2015) asserts that, Drug abuse leads to a compromised decision making, for instance many engage in unprotected sex because they are drunk and they are not in their rightful minds, irresponsible sexual behaviors that frequently occur in youth who do not have basics information about sex and contraception.

A study by Busulwa et al (1999), on economic needs and vulnerability of female adolescents to HIV infection in Mubende district revealed that pocket money followed by an expensive dresses were the most tempting items in the group of adolescents. Parents seemed to look less favorably to needs of these girls who were out of schools. 70.3% adolescents indicated that money was the most means of reward for sex. Wealth and position is another cause of premarital sex; some ladies want money at all costs hence they are ready to use their bodies to get it by sleeping around. Adwale (2010). In Sierra Leone girls as young as fourteeen selling their bodies for just as low as e3 to pay for education April (2016), daily mail. In this country, schooling costs e40 a year which id s difficult to fund their education, a young girl of fourteen years, confessed she earns money by working as a prostitute, she said she had to sleep with clients during night and would go to school in the morning. She said would earn e3per day but some nights she would earn e9-10 but that meant seeing three clients a night. Poverty may push young people to sexual behaviors in exchange for money and food. This severity of lack in necessities in home will make a desperate girl engage in premarital sex especially commercial sex to acquire her basic needs (R.Y L Langham, 2010)

Premarital sex is caused by a lot of factors, as we have mentioned the most common ones above, there remains a couple of others factors, like, loose parenting, lack of information about sex and ignorance, promoted use of contraceptives, the environment we live in, and the list is endless which also play a role in contributing to premarital sex in secondary school girls.

However, with all the mentioned causes of premarital sex, they as well have effects that these secondary girls experience and these are;

The most common effect is teenage pregnancy, the daily monitor, 2013 published that the population secretariat indicates that of the one million pregnancies recorded in Uganda annually, 25% of these are teenage pregnancies, there are more than 300000 teenagers who get pregnant also account for the bulk of unwanted pregnancies, which end up in unintended births and or abortions and dropping out of school. Due to the these, 14% of young women and 16% of young men had their first sexual encounter before the age of 15 while 57% of young women had their first encounter before the age of 18years. (The Uganda demographic health survey011). With Uganda has for some time now had the highest rate of teenage pregnancies in sub Saharan Africa at over 25% despite the existence of the criminalizing defilement.

The second commonest is acquiring HIV and STD. Youth aged 13 to 24 accounted for more than 1 in 5 new HIV diagnosis in 2014, and at the end of 2012, 44% of youth ages 18 to 24 years living with HIV did not know they had HIV, (HIV facts, CDC, 2016). Many adolescents engage in sexual intercourse with multiple partners and without condoms, thus they engage in sexual behaviors that place them at risk of STDs, including HIV, among sexually experienced people, adolescents aged 15-19 have the highest reported rates of STDs. Consequently, in the US, it was estimated that 25% of all people with HIV acquired it when they were teenagers, HIVtransmission and prevention on adolescents, Douglas Kirby, (2002). Out of the 33million Ugandans, 2million have HIV, 4% of young adults age 15-24 are living with HIV. (Prevalence higher in girls than boys) thus an effect of premarital sex.

The other effect is regret, one high school girl wrote, I am sixteen and have already lost my virginity. I truly regret that my first time was a guy that I didn’t care about that much, since that first night, he expects to have sex on every date. This makes me feel cheap, I realized now that this is a very big step in a girl’s life, after you have done it, things are never the same. It changes everything.(chasityproject.com), therefore most girls will suffer emotional distress, (regret and emptiness and guilt, thus an effect as a result of premarital sex.

Depression, girls who have a young age to the norms of their peer’s experience significant increase in depression while those who have sex on time or later than the majority of their peers do not experience significant effects. Depression increased 14% of teenagers in the first sex, Ann, M, Merem (2007). These children often feel helpless and powerless. More girls internalize their emotions and show signs of depression than boys (Boehi 2015).

Ann, M, Merem further comments that first sexual experiences are associated with decreased self-esteem among girls who have sex at a young age relative to norms of their peers and who are not in a romantic relationship when they have sex.

2.2 Level at which girl child education is affected by premarital sex.

Young women in Ghana, Malawi and Uganda who have had premarital sex are significantly more likely than those who have not had sex to drop out before completing secondary schools(odds ratios, 1.9-3.2). Premarital sex is not associated with dropping out in among young women in BurkinaFaso, however and among young men, its associated with dropping out only in Uganda (1.7). In all four countries, young women who enroll school at the outset of adolescence are more likely than their male counter parts to leave school before completing primary education, but before beginning secondary school and to leave before completing secondary school. (Lisa Melhado 2009). As a level of formal education has increased through sub Saharan Africa, so to has to the number of students attending school after puberty begins, at the same time, age at marriage has increased and the proportions of adolescents and young adults engaging in premarital sex has generally risen, so that adolescents must negotiate sexual maturation and sexual debut during their school years. Few studies have examined the relationship between sexual behaviors and educational outcomes among adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa, fewer still have examined these associated among mal adolescents( a journal  of peer reviewed research, vole 35, issue 1 2009) in the analysis data from nationally representatives household- based surveys conducted un (2009), among male and female 12-19 years old in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Malawi and Uganda, researchers examined relationship between premarital sex and leaving school among respondents who had been attending school at the age of 12, all having different educational systems, in terms of durations of primary school and fees. And have different levels of adolescent’s sexual activity thus permitting examination of whether the relationship between sexual behavior and education outcomes varies in diverse contexts. Among 19 years who had been attending school at the age of 12 and had completed primary school half or more reported that they had sex, (49%-74%), expect in Ghana, where 31% and 44% of females had done so. In Ghana and Uganda, higher proportions of females than males in this group had premarital sex, whereas the reverse was true in Malawi. (Biddlecoms, etal 2008)

In all the four countries, females who were still in school at age 12 were more likely than males to drop out before completing secondary school (odd ratios, 1.3-2.0). A similar pattern was apparent at the primary level. In every country but Burkina Faso females were more likely than males to drop out before completing primary school, and in Uganda and Burkina Faso, females who had completed primary school were more likely than male’s counterparts to not go to secondary school. (1.4 and 2, 1 respectively.)

According to the journal of adolescents who have premarital sex show higher drop outs in sub Saharan Africa, asserts that premarital sex was associated in dropping out of school in 3 countries. For female s, the odds of dropping out of schools before completing secondary school were elevated approximately two fold in Malawi and Uganda, (1.9-2.0) and more than three fold in Ghana, (3.2) among those who had premarital sex. Among other individual and household’s variables like social cultural factors, economic factors, geographical factors, health factors and political issues(factors affecting girl child education, 2012) the one most consistently associated with leaving primary and secondary schools were urban residence and households heads educational attainment, each of which was negatively associated with dropping out in about half of the country gender combinations,

Therefore, overall the finding suggests that un the four countries examined females are more vulnerable than males to leaving school once they have matured sexually and had premarital sex. (Lisa Melhado et al 2009)

2.3 Knowledge school girls have about premarital sex.

In many African countries, young men and women have different interest, motivations and strategies for engaging in premarital sexual relationships for various reasons including enhancements of their marriage prospects, providing their fertility to their future husbands and for financial benefits. (Meeker 1994). Men on the other hand are more likely to engage in sexual satisfaction having multiple partners is often a means for a male adolescent to gain social status and respect among his peers. Because of these difference, adolescent’s boys and girls are different and hence, they are exposed to different reproductive health risks. (Aderibgbe et al 2008).

Knowledge of premarital sex and its influence on sexual behaviors, adolescents in federal government senor secondary schools in Nigeria. Teenagers make up a quarter of all mothers I Transkei, South Africa and well over 75% the unmarried. Such a high rate of teen pregnancy is indicative of a high level of premarital sex and more over unprotected adolescent sexual activity. We examined sexual behavior knowledge and attitudes to sexually among adolescent school girls in Transkei, 1996, using a self-administered questionnaire, in order to establish the incidence of sexual activity and associated risk factors. Of 1072 respondents, 74.6% were ready sexually experienced and 21.0% were not. The majority of the Sexually Experienced Girls(SEGs) and Sexually Inexperienced Girls(SIGs) were living with both their parents. Contraceptive use was low, and a third of the SEGs, had been pregnant at least once. The knowledge of reproductive biology among both groups of girls was generally poor. Although SEGs were significantly more knowledgeable than SIGs.The majority of these girls in both girls did not approve the premarital sex and adolescent pregnancy. They also did not approve of the idea of the introducing sex education in schools, or the provision of contraceptives by schools. Nearly a third of the respondents in both groups didn’t wish to get married in the future. They concluded that the high level of unprotected sexually among school girls in Transkei. The risk factors for this include early sexual maturation, early onset dating and poor knowledge of reproductive biology and contraceptive.

According to the research that was done in South Africa, there was a possibility of school girls to engage in premarital sex due to poor knowledge of sex. More so there is a possibility of having high cases of abortion, high rates of pregnancy and more cases of acquiring STIs, with provision of contraceptives, it only promotes the engagement premarital sexually active girls. Ramathuba, D, et al 2012.

Over the years the idea of contraceptives as a means of birth control in republic of South Africa has changed which some totally opposed and other accepting it. Traditionally it was not acceptable to fall pregnant before marriage, but cultural norms have shifted and having a teenage pregnancy is now not seen as immoral.(Ziyan& Ehlers 2006) indicate that attitudes of health care providers also contribute to the on use contraceptives by adolescents, since they are denied access by being ridiculed and despite having knowledge about contraceptives hey end up becoming pregnant.

Cultural beliefs within the black communities also prevent young people from gaining more information about sexually because culturally parents could not discuss sexual information with their children. Concrete sexual education and related information were not made available to the youth until they were faced with trauma of unwanted pregnancies, birth complications, STIs due to wrong decision and misconception about contraceptives. (Ehlers, 2006)

On balance, there is a high probability hat with black cultures parent’s teachers and church leaders are failing to communicate information about sex freely to their children as they feel embarrassed and awkward and think it is immoral. Various studies reported that adolescents in the republic of South Africa had some knowledge of one or another method to prevent pregnancies but never as much as tried to use these methods, (Setiloanel 1990, Ehlers et al 2006).

A study was carried in Nigerian secondary school about knowledge on abstinence, only sexual education and preparedness was studied. Hypothesis were formulated and tested. A greater proportion of secondary school student’s adolescents in the study lacked knowledge of sexual education; about 0.1% of the respondents could not define sexual education. The general perspective on abstinence –only sexual education was negative, as revealed by the larger number of the respondents who demonstrated unwillingness to practice abstinence- only sex education. Specifically, of those who responded in favor of abstinence only sexual education, the youngest group of adolescents 11-13yrs were more likely to accept this type of education than others. (Mfrekemfon Plyangl, 2013)