FARMERS’ KNOWLEDGE OF AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE USE OF INORGANIC FERTILIZER FOR IRISH POTATO (Solanum tuberosum) PRODUCTION IN KABALE DISTRICT, UGANDA

LIST OFABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AAPOR: American Association for Public Research

ARI-Uyole: Agricultural Research Institute of Uyole

CIP : Centre International de la Pomme de terre/ Potato International Centrer

CIS: Community Information System

DADP: Delta Agricultural Development Programme

DAIMINA: Developing Agriculture-input Market in Nigeria

FAO: Food and Agriculture Organisation (of the United Nations)

FYM: Farm Yard Manure

IFDC: International Centre for Soil Fertility and Agricultural Development

KAZARDI: Kachwekano Zonal Agricultural and Research Development Institute

N.P.K: Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium

PRA: Participatory Rural Appraisal

UBOS: Uganda Bureau of Statistics

USA: United Sates of America

ABSTRACT

Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum) is the fourth most significant food crop in the world after rice. However, in Uganda, Irish potato production is reported to be very low. This is ascribed to high soil nutrient mining coupled with low inorganic fertilizer use. Accordingly, in Kabale District, farmers apply low rates (41.5kg-67.2kg/ha) compared to the recommended application rate of 120kg – 215kg/ha. The reasons for this low inorganic fertilizer use are not well understood. Therefore, this study assessed the farmer’s knowledge and attitude towards the use of inorganic fertilizers in Irish potato production in Kabale District. The study adopted a cross sectional survey design. Interviews and structured questionnaires were used to solicit information from 370 respondents from Kabale District. The results show that majority (60.9%) of respondent use inorganic fertilizers; with NPK being the highly (59.2%) used inorganic fertilizer. Accordingly, 55.1% of the respondents had knowledge of fertilizer application. In terms of quantity, Majority of respondents applied 50kgs/ha (49.0%). However, 65.8% of the respondents reported having technical challenges during inorganic fertilizer use. Basing on these results, it was concluded that farmers in Kabale use low fertilizer application rates and did not have sufficient knowledge on inorganic fertilizer application needed to achieve high yields of Irish potatoes. Additional attitude of respondents significantly influenced the use of fertilizers. It’s therefore recommended that more sensitization and provision of technical services on inorganic fertilizer use be done. Also, Government develops mechanism to improve accessibility of inorganic fertilizers and credit facilities to farmers.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum) is the fourth most important food crop in the world after rice, maize and wheat in terms of human consumption (Kandil, Attia, Badawi, Sharief and Abido, 2011). The quantity produced yearly exceeds 300 million metric tons and more than a billion people worldwide consume potato which is rich in carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, dietary fibers, simple sugars and minerals (Centre International de la Pomme de terre/ Potato International Centrer 2010). However, its yields have reduced in most parts of the world due to low soil fertility (Shaaban and Kisetu, 2014). This is because Irish potato production requires a reasonable quantity of readily available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the soil (Suh, Meka, Ngome, Neba, Kemngwa, Sonkouat and Njualem, 2015) which is only possible through the use of inorganic fertilizers.

Inorganic fertilizer is one of the critical inputs used in improving smallholder food and agricultural productivity. The importance of fertilizer application to agricultural production was stated by Lawal and Ayoola (2008) to include: improvement of soil structure, positive effect on biotic factors and nutrient supply. This meant a huge amount of money spent annually in the USA by both States and Federal Authorities on fertilizers procurement and distribution to increase agricultural production (Agwu and Anyanwu, 2000). According to Monirul, Akhter, Majid, Alam and Jannatul (2013), variation in the rate of application of inorganic fertilizers could influence the yield of Irish potato and improve soil fertility while combating pests and diseases (Khadem, Galavi, Ramrodi, Mousavi, Rousta and Rezvani-Moghadam, 2010).

In order to achieve high yield, Irish potato requires cool weather, reasonable amount of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) in the soil. Phosphorus is the second most important macro nutrient after nitrogen that plays significant role in the physiological and biochemical reactions such as photosynthesis and transfer characteristics (Mehrvarz, Chaichi and Alikhani, 2008). Phosphorus fertilizers and manure in the soil increase phosphorus uptake by plants, through favouring production of carbonic acid, the acid that increases solubility of phosphate compounds in calcareous soils. Fertilizer application has important effects on the quality and yield of Irish potatoes (Leytem and Westermann, 2005). Potato is highly responsive to N fertilization and N is usually the most limiting essential nutrient for Irish potatoes growth, especially on sandy soils. Nitrogen supply also plays an important role in the balance between vegetative and reproductive growth for Irish potato (White, Wheatley, Hammond and Zhang, 2007).

Studies conducted by Kanyeka, Kamala and Kasuga (2007) and Al-Dalain (2009) revealed that the potential average potato tuber yield in Tanzania is 25 tonnes ha^-1 under optimal agronomic practices. The low level of potato production in Tanzania is associated with low soil fertility and absence of deliberately replenishment of the nutrients to the agricultural soils in the cropping cycle after crop harvest.

In Uganda, Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a very important staple food crop grown in places like Kabale, Mbale, Kisoro and Fort Portal. Irish potatoes grow in soil temperature higher than 45°F (7°C) and lower than70°F (21°C). At the time of planting, soils should be moist but not excessively wet. In irrigated desert areas, it is common to irrigate prior to planting to add moisture to dry soils. Planting into soils that are excessively cold, hot, wet or dry may increase the potential for seed piece decay. Within reasonable limits, the early establishment of a crop may increase yield and dry matter potential (Oladele, 2005).

Increased use of inorganic fertilizer in combination with other improved technologies, such as good agronomic practices, irrigation, can improve agricultural productivity. Agriculture in most developing countries such as Uganda is predominantly subsistence, dominated by smallholder farmers. Over 80 percent of the arable land is dominated by these enterprises, and most often the smallholders do not produce enough. Yields in agricultural production are often low, which pose a challenge to both policy makers and agricultural researchers (Lawal and Ayoola, 2008).

In Uganda, Irish potato is grown for both home consumption and income especially in the highland areas of South Western Uganda (Kabale and Kisoro) and Eastern Uganda (Mbale and Sironko) districts. Although other regions are taking on commercial Irish potato production due to introduction of low land varieties, about 60% of the crop production remains in the East and Southwest of the country (Wang’ombe, 2008). Between 1964 and 1997, Irish Potato production in Uganda was fuelled by the introduction of hybrid Irish potato and related technologies. However, there has been a marked decline in yield since 1997. Irish potato yield have declined from 1.85 metric tonnes per hectare in the period 1985 – 1989 to the current yield of 1.57 metric tonnes per hectare. Shortage of Irish potato in Uganda results in food insecurity or famine among the poor urban and rural households. Future increase in Irish potato production will heavily depend on yield improvement rather than expansion in area under production (Doward and Chirawa, 2011).

Ugandan government policy objective for Irish sub-sector is to encourage increased production so that self-sufficiency and food security can be achieved. Some of the reasons for the dwindling performance in Irish potato production are associated with the constraints along the Irish potato value chain. Key among the constraints are; poor access to credit, inadequate use of recommended technologies, high cost of inputs, inefficient agricultural extension services among others (Doward and Chirawa, 2011).

The studies by Zelalem, Tekalign and Nigussie (2009); Babajiet al. (2009); Namwata, Lwelamira and Mzirai (2010) and Kandil et al. (2011) have shown that inorganic fertilizer applications can increase dry matter content, protein content of Irish potato tubers, total and/or marketable tuber yield. Nitrogen fertilization has been reported to increase the average fresh tuber, plant height, leaf number and tuber weight per plant. The purpose of the present study was to determine the role of farmers’ knowledge of and attitudes towards inorganic fertilizer use for Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum) production in Kabale District in order to meet optimum Irish potato yields.

1.2. Statement of the problem

Uganda is one of the countries in sub-Saharan Africa with the highest soil nutrient mining and where fertilizer use levels remain very low at 2 kg per hectare compared to the neighbouring Kenya at 32kg per hectare (Agriculture Sector Development Strategy and Investment Plan, 2010). The majority of Irish potato farmers in Uganda either use little or no inorganic fertilizer (Okoboi and Birungi, 2012). In Kabale, farmers apply between 41.5kg and 67.2kg per hectare of inorganic fertilizer compared to the recommended application rate of 120kg – 215kg/ha (Maiangwa, Ogungbile, Olukosi and Atala, 2007). The reasons for the low utilization rates by Irish-Potato farmers in Kabale District are not well known. Yet, proper understanding of farmers’ perceptions of inorganic fertilizer use in Irish potato production provides a context-specific entry point for advisory services needed to achieve higher yields and overall economic growth and poverty reduction (Dethier and Effenberger, 2011). This study was therefore designed to assess farmers’ knowledge, attitudes and extent of inorganic fertilizer use in Kabale District in western Uganda.

1.3. General objective

The general objective of this study was to establish knowledge and attitudes of Irish potato farmers towards use of inorganic fertilizers for production in Kabale District, Uganda.

1.4. Specific objectives

The specific objectives were to:

Assess the extent of inorganic fertilizer usage among Irish potato farmers in Kabale District.
Determine the farmers’ knowledge of the inorganic fertilizers used in Irish potato production in Kabale District.
Determine the farmers’ attitudes towards use of inorganic fertilizers for Irish potato production in Kabale District.
Determine the socio-economic factors influencing farmers’ use of inorganic fertilizer for Irish potato production in Kabale District.

1.5. Research questions

Objective 1: Extent of inorganic fertilizer usage

To what extent is inorganic fertilizer used among Irish potato farmers in Kabale District?
How many times is inorganic fertilizer applied during Irish potato production season?

Objective 2: Farmers’ knowledge of the inorganic fertilizers

What is the level of the farmers’ knowledge of inorganic fertilizers used for Irish potato production in Kabale District?
What methods do farmers use in applying inorganic fertilizers for Irish potato production?

Objective 3: Farmers’ attitudes towards use of inorganic fertilizers

What are the farmers’ attitudes towards the use of inorganic fertilizers in Irish potato production in Kabale District?
What is farmers’ understanding of the importance of using inorganic fertilizers for Irish potato production?

Objective 4: Socio-economic factors

What are the socio-economic factors influencing farmers’ attitudes towards the use of inorganic fertilizer in Irish potato production in Kabale District?
What are the factors influencing the adoption of inorganic fertilizers for Irish potato production?

1.7 Hypothesis

The following null hypotheses were tested

Farmers in Kabale use low rate of inorganic fertilizers on Irish potato production
Farmers attitudes towards inorganic fertilizer usage in Irish potato growing are influenced by traditional beliefs.
Farmers in Kabale have significantly limited knowledge about the inorganic fertilizers usage in Irish potato production
Inorganic fertilizer usage by farmers in Kabale is influenced by socio-economic factors

1.8 Significance of the study

The results of the study would be helpful in the following ways:

Highlight reasons why farmers are not using inorganic fertilizer in Irish potato production.
Help in designing extension approaches to promote fertilizer use in Irish production
Inform policy for inorganic fertilizer utilization as a way of increasing crop production and fighting hunger in Uganda and elsewhere in African countries.

1.9. Scope

1.9.1. Geographical scope

The study was carried out among Irish potato farmers in Kabale District. The study was mainly done in Hamurwa and Muko sub-counties. This was because the two sub-counties are among the sub-counties of Kabale District with higher percentage of Irish Potato production. Other sub-counties in Kabale District are Bubare, Bufundi, Buhara, Bukinda, Butanda, Ikumba, Kaharo, Kamuganguzi, Kamwezi, Kashambya, Kitumba, Kyanamira, Maziba, Rubaya and Rwamucucu. The Municipality is composed of three divisions: Central Division, Northern Division and Southern Division.

1.9.2. Content scope

The study investigated farmers’ knowledge of and attitude towards inorganic fertilizer use for Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum) production, Kabale District. It mainly assessed the extent of inorganic fertilizer usage among Irish potato farmers; determine the farmers’ knowledge of the inorganic fertilizers used for Irish potato production; determine the farmers’ attitudes towards use of inorganic fertilizers for Irish potato production and determine the socio-economic factors influencing farmers’ attitudes towards the use of inorganic fertilizer for Irish potato production in Kabale District.

1.9.3. Time scope

The study covered the period of five years (2010-2015). This was because the last five years, there has been intensification of Irish potato production in Kabale District and people were sensitized on the production of Irish potato as it gained international market to Rwanda, DRC and South Sudan.

1.10. Limitations

The findings of this study were limited by:

Some respondents were concealing vital information for fear of implicating themselves. This was solved by assuring them the confidentiality of the information that they provided.
Expectations from some respondents for tokens in form of money as they thought that the information required was for commercial purposes. This problem was solved by explaining to the respondents the purpose of the research.
The time scheduled to carry out this research was not enough due to the process and the distance the researcher had to travel during data collection. To overcome this, the researcher also hired research assistants to assist him in the process of data collection.

1.10. Theoretical framework

This research focuses on farmers’ knowledge and attitudes towards inorganic fertilizer use in Irish potato production. The study was built on two correlated theories: the Theory of Planned Behaviour and the Theory of Reasoned Action. These theories explain the decision to adopt or not to adopt inorganic fertilizers in Irish potato production with respect to a variety of socio-economic factors as well as comparing the knowledge and attitudes of Irish potato farmers.

In order to gain a better understanding of the decision of Irish potato farmers to adopt inorganic fertilizers, it was first perceived as a human behavioural issue. A model from the social psychology literature named the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) was applied. The theory of planned behavior is “designed to predict and explain human behavior in specific contexts” (Ajzen, 1991). It had its origin in the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1985). According to the TPB, the intention was based on three main constructs, namely attitudes, subjective norm (SN) and perceived behavioural control (PBC). Intention to perform the behaviour was regarded as the most important immediate determinant of that action (Ajzen and Fishbein, 2005). Therefore, knowledge of Irish potato farmers had on inorganic fertilizer use drove the intention to use Inorganic fertilizer in Irish potato production. However, due to social and economic factors such as prices, experience of Irish potato farmers, level of education, which were the control factors, farmers would adopt the use of inorganic fertilizers in Irish potato production.

According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), the behaviour of an individual is basically determined by two factors; one is the individual’s nature and the other reflects perceived social and bevahiour economic pressure. The individual factor is the individual’s positive or negative evaluation of performing the behaviour. Since it deals with personal feelings, this factor is termed the “attitude towards the behaviour” (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980). The other factor is the individual’s perception of social and economic pressure put on him/her to perform or not perform the behaviour. Since it deals with perceived prescription, this factor is termed the “subjective norm” (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1973).

Generally, Irish potato farmers intend to use inorganic fertilizers when they both have a favourable evaluation of the behaviour and they believe that a significant number of other people wish they would do it. Considering these arguments, Ajzen and Fishbein developed the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) in 1980. This theory assumes that people are normally quite rational, in that they make systematic use of available information, consider the implications of their actions, and thus behave in a sensible manner. TRA argues that behaviour is best predicted by a person’s intentions which are in turn affected by his/her attitude and perceived social pressure. Thus the TRA provided a theoretical framework for examining the influence of attitudes and goals on volitional behaviours(Willock et al. 1999). The TPB states that a person’s behaviour results from his/her goals and intentions, attitudes, perceived behavioural control and social norms (Bergevote et al. 2004).

Attitude is determined by the beliefs that are salient or important to a person. Attitudes are formed by what an individual perceives to be true about the attitude-object. The beliefs underlying an individual’s social pressure are termed normative beliefs and represent the perception of the preferences of ‘a significant number of others” about whether one should perform the behaviour (Chetsumon, 2005).

The theory on farmer decision-making in relation to the uptake of inorganic fertilizer technologies and examines the variables which commonly explain adoption. The study

sets out by briefly exploring some general theories that can help explain the application and adaptation of innovative agricultural technologies. . Recently, researchers have started to pay more attention to the internal decision-making process and look beyond the mere characteristics of the innovation and the household to include psychological and motivational factors in technology uptake. Knowledge, attitude and practice studies looking at the uptake of innovations have been carried out since the 1980s; however, these surveys have rarely been applied to f adoption, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (Ajayi2007). The theories reviewed here lead to the development of an analytical framework, which emphasizes the role of knowledge, attitudes and perceptions in the decision-making process of technology adoption. Using this analytical framework as a reference point, were view the literature on the uptake of fertilize use practices in sub-Saharan Africa to better understand the variables that most commonly explain technology adoption. Application of the framework in adoption studies and design of Agriculture technology interventions are hoped to help in ensuring sustainability. There is a broad range of the literature with regard to theories about decision-making processes.. Rogers (1995) described how innovations are adopted over time in his ‘diffusion of innovations’ theory. Diffusion refers to the process by which innovations are spread among the members of a social system over time. An innovation can be an idea or concept, technical information or an actual practice that is perceived as new by the individual. Rogers (1995) identified five characteristics that determine the rate of adoption of the innovation: the relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability and observability. The decision to adopt an innovation is a mental process consisting of five stages: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation and confirmation. Rogers (1995) suggested that the innovativeness of an individual determines when the individual adopts the innovation and recognized five successive adopter categories: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards. The adoption process is also affected by the so-called receiver variables, such as personality characteristics, social characteristics and the perceived need for the innovation. The diffusion of innovations theory has guided many studies that try to understand the uptake of new agricultural technologies and it has been applied in the development of farmer decision-making models in the tropics (Mercer 2004, Edwards-Jones 2006, Pannell et al. 2006, Reed 2007).There has been a shift in thinking away from looking at adoption as the delivery of an external, typically science-based innovation with farmers as potential end users towards a more complex learning process involving a wide range of actors (Ro ̈ling and Jiggins1998). Ro ̈ling (1992) describes the emergence of knowledge systems thinking, in which an articulated set o factors, networks and organizations are expected or managed to work synergistically to support knowledge processes. Ro ̈ling and Jiggins (1998) describe three types of knowledge systems: transfer of technology, farm management development and the ecological knowledge system. The most common and conventional knowledge system is the transfer of technology, which views desirable farming practice as using science-based component technologies, farmer learning as the adoption of external innovations and facilitation as the delivery of these innovations. Farm management development operates within strategic rationality and aims to support the practices of the farmer as an entrepreneur engaged in an economic enterprise focusing on the farm as a whole. The main purpose of the ecological knowledge system is to help land users to become experts at managing complex ecosystems in a sustainable manner. It assumes that farmers are experts on their own farm and take decisions based on knowledgeable interference from observation and analysis through social learning (Ro ̈ling and Jiggins 1998)

1.11. Conceptual frame work

Independent variables

Dependent variables

Dependent variable

Intervening variables

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework showing relationships of variables of knowledge of and attitudes towards inorganic fertilizer use in Irish potato production.

Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework for Irish potato production and that inorganic fertilizer use depends on the knowledge and attitudes of farmers toward the importance of fertilizers. Irish production directly depends on inorganic use due to the fact that fertilizers can be directly applied into the soil and increase on the soil nutrients thus enhancing the growth of potatoes hereby increasing the total output per hectare. Inorganic fertilizer use directly depends on knowledge in that when farmers are ignorant about the importance of fertilizers, then there might be no or limited application of these fertilizers. In addition, if farmers are aware of the availability and importance of inorganic fertilizers, application and usage might be high. Furthermore, attitude of farmers greatly affects the use of inorganic fertilizers. Most times when people have negative attitude either due to lack of knowledge about the importance or due to bad experiences and wrong application of the fertilizers limits the use of inorganic fertilizers. In addition, some farmers prefer to use organic fertilizer than inorganic thus these already have poor attitude towards inorganic fertilizer use hence limiting the application of inorganic fertilizers. However, socio-economic factors such level of education, prices of fertilizers, farm size access to credits and source of information among others influences the use of inorganic fertilizers by Irish potato farmers.

1.12. Operational definitions of terms

The following key terms will be operationally defined as follows:

Irish Potato Farmer: He/she is a person engaged in Irish potato production. The main activities of Irish Potato farmer are growing and harvesting Irish potatoes.

Farmers’ Attitude: A manner of thinking, feeling, and or behaving that influences the use of inorganic fertilizer.

Inorganic Fertilizer: It is Inorganic fertilizers exclude carbon-containing materials except ureas. NPK is among the most inorganic fertilizers used in Irish Potato growing. Inorganic fertilizer may also refer to an inorganic substance containing one or more plant nutrients which when applied into the soil in the right proportions increases Irish potato yield.

Irish Potato Farmer: Is a person engaged in Irish potato production. The main activities of Irish potato farmer are growing and harvesting Irish potatoes.

Production: The processes and methods used to transform tangible inputs (raw materials, semi-finished goods, subassemblies) and intangible inputs (ideas, information, knowledge) into goods and services.

Yield: The amount of harvest of Irish potatoes obtained per hectare at a given time expressed usually as bags of produce.

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