CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction
This chapter examines the related work from previous studies. It covers literature on the extent of inorganic fertilizer usage among Irish potato farmers, farmers’ knowledge of the inorganic fertilizers used in Irish potato production, farmers’ attitudes towards the use of inorganic fertilizers for Irish potato production and socio-economic factors influencing farmers’ attitudes towards use of inorganic fertilizer for Irish potato production.
2.2. Inorganic fertilizer use
Inorganic fertilizers are used in modern agriculture to correct known plant-nutrient deficiencies; to provide high levels of nutrition, which aid plants in withstanding stress conditions; to maintain optimum soil fertility conditions; and to improve crop quality. Adequate fertilization programmes supply the amounts of plant nutrients needed to sustain maximum net returns (Leonard, 1986). In essence, inorganic fertilizers are used to make certain that soil fertility is not a limiting factor in Irish potato production.
The use of inorganic NP fertilizers improves Irish potato yields. Tolessa, and Friensen (2001) reported that the application of 25% recommended inorganic NP fertilizers + enriched FYM resulted in the highest marginal rate of return indicating that the integrated approach can enable to save up to 75% of commercial fertilizers. Likewise, Bayu, Rethman, Hammes and Alemu (2006) also reported the possibility of saving up to 50% of the recommended NP fertilizers due to amendment with 5-15 tonnes ha-1 of FYM without significantly affecting the optimum possible yield that can be obtained with the application of full dose of inorganic NP fertilizers alone. Joy, Savithri, Mathew, Thomas and Kurien (2005) reported the possibility of substituting up to 25% inorganic fertilizers with the application of 30 tonnes ha-1 FYM while still maintaining the highest rhizome yield.
Roy, Finck, Blair and Tandon (2006) formulated the following recommendations concerning N-fertilizers and reported that split application is better. They advised to apply about two-thirds of the nitrogen recommendation in the seedbed and the remainder top-dressed shortly after emergence if top dressing is planned for management reasons or to reduce the risk of leaching for crops grown on light sand and shallow soils. Different methods of fertilizer application can be adopted according to soil, weather and cultural practices conditions. For P-fertilizer, they recommended the application of total amount at ploughing or planting using special methods of application such as placement or band spreading. Regarding K-fertilizer, the author recommended split application (in case of soil with potential leaching): a half at planting and another one a bit later. Placement method of application was advised.
Kelly and Murekezi (2000) emphasized the use of inorganic fertilizer. These studies show that little fertilizer is used (five percent of farmers on three percent of total cultivated area) which has very high marginal returns and, if correctly used, would be highly profitable for Irish potato farmers. The increase and more efficient use of inorganic fertilizer is expected to contribute 4% of the 5.3% growth of the agriculture sector. Inorganic fertilizer is among the inputs which contribute to a better Irish potato production.
Kelly and Murekezi (2000), the studies show that less than 10% of farmers in Rwanda have ever used fertilizer. This means that a vast majority of farmers simply do not know how profitable it is to use fertilizer on crops they grow in s where their own farms are located. This is fundamentally different from farmers having heard about fertilizer, or about its profitability in general terms. That is why there is a vast gap between farmers’ total demand for fertilizers and total profitable fertilizer potential (e.g., the estimate of 22,798 tons made by Kelly et. al.). Such gap could persist for many years in the absence of public efforts to convince farmers about the profitability of fertilizer use. In this scenario, many farmers will miss the opportunities to raise their income through fertilizer use, year after year. No less importantly, vast amount of cultivated land will continue to remain unfertilized, despite economic viability of fertilizer use, and this will further aggravate depletion of soil fertility. The research on profitable fertilizer potential is usually based on an economic evaluation of actual fertilizer response on various crops in different agro-climatic regions. Therefore, it is an invaluable aid in developing programs to convince farmers about profitability of fertilizer use in their own agro-climatic environments. Such programs make a decisive impact on farmers’ fertilizer use decisions that accelerate the adoption and diffusion processes. This is how sustainable rapid growth in farmers’ total demand for fertilizer has be generated in many countries, especially in the early stages when there is a vast gap between actual fertilizer consumption and profitable potential.
2.3. Role of Farmers’ knowledge in inorganic fertilizer use
Inorganic fertilizer has been used in significant amounts in Irish potato production in various regions like South Africa, Egypt, and Zimbabwe. This was due to the fact that education gives farmers better access to information about the inorganic fertilizers and more knowledge of how much inorganic fertilizer to use. Thus, education is expected to favourably affect inorganic fertilizer decisions. On the other hand, in a situation when nitrogen fertilizer is overused, better knowledge of fertilizer has the effect of neutralizing the tendency of overuse. Likewise, the effect of age is not straightforward in the adoption literature (Abdoulaye and Sanders, 2005). It could be that older farmers have more experience in farming and have better access to the technologies than younger farmers.
Similar to other crops, for several years (more than 20 years) Agricultural Research Institute of Uyole (ARI-Uyole) has been engaged in generation of improved agricultural technologies for Irish potatoes farming in southern highlands of Tanzania to enhance productivity. The Research institute has also been working very closely with agricultural extension system and other stakeholders in the area in trying to disseminate these technologies to farmers (Kanyekaet al., 2007). However, despite the efforts done, there is still lack of information on the adoption of the disseminated technologies and factors hindering or promoting their adoption, or information important for more informed decisions and programmes aiming at improving potatoes production in the study area.
It has, however, been recognized that farmers know a lot, and the cardinal principles of participatory processes respect knowledge and skills of farmers since farmers are the most important stakeholders and the role of outsiders is to support them (Conroy, 2005). Exploratory studies based on participatory methods are well suited to getting an understanding of the farmers’ technology needs, adoption constraints and prospects for effective technology intervention. Use of participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and participatory situational analysis approaches accord respect to the knowledge and skills of the farmers, recognize that farmers are the most important stakeholders and encourage target communities to freely express themselves, get involved and own the process (Conroy, et al, 2005).
Conroy, et al . (2004) noted that although many projects rely solely on conventional government extension services to disseminate information to all farmer typologies the approach is often not effective. Matthewrman, AshIey and Morton (1997) describes the sources of failure by conventional information delivery of technology packages as being the common use of ‘top down’ information flow with heavy reliance on ‘progressive farmers’ hoping that other farmers-of different objectives, preferences; circumstances and resource endowment – will learn and copy from experiences of these farmers and subsequently adopt the technologies in question.
Kelly et al. (2001) found that the most common reason of not using inorganic fertilizer in Rwanda is the lack of knowledge and the next most common is the high fertilizer prices. The interpretation they give to the first reason is that farmers’ knowledge of the benefits and of how to use the fertilizers is not strong enough to stimulate use.
Kelly et al. (2001) illustrate the concept of capacity to invest when trying to explain the big gap between potential fertilizer demand and fertilizer effective demand in Rwanda. They say that, if farmers do not know about the economic incentives associated with inorganic fertilizer, there is a human capital constraint that needs to be lifted by improving knowledge; if farmers do not purchase inorganic fertilizer because they do not have the financial capital, there is a need to build financial capital through savings and credit programs; if Irish farmers do not purchase fertilizer because they do not have the physical capital to use it properly, the productivity is reduced . The constraint needs to be addressed for agro economic potential to be translated into effective demand. It is, therefore, important that credit constrained farmers be facilitated to access loans at reasonable costs in order to purchase farm inputs such as inorganic fertilizers and pesticides.
The study of Shiferaw, Obare and Muricho(2008) showed that there is a positive and significant difference between membership in a farmers’ association and technical efficiency (P < 0.1), suggesting that Irish potato farmers who belong to an organization are likely to benefit from better access to inputs and to information on improved farming practices. Being a member in Irish potato farmers’ association may lead to sharing of information on farming technologies which tends to influence the production practices of members through peer learning. This could be explained by the fact that Irish potato farmers’ associations have the potential to shorten the marketing chain by directly connecting small producers to markets; better coordinate production and marketing activities and facilitate Irish potato farmer access to production inputs at fair prices.
2.4. Farmers attitudes towards inorganic fertilizer use
The importance of inorganic fertilizer application to agricultural production are stated by Lawal and Ayoola (2008) to include improvement of soil structure, positive effect on biotic factors and nutrient supply. This informed that not a huge amount of money was spent by Irish potato farmers on inorganic fertilizer purchase to increase Irish potato production. This may probably be attributed to a number of factors including lack of knowledge, social and economic factors such as status, attitudes and costs of technology as well as factors relating to the technology. Pre-conditions for the adoption and efficient use of inorganic fertilizers by Irish potato farmers are that the inorganic fertilizer has to be technically and environmentally sound, socially desirable, economically affordable and sustainable (Mundi and Ezenwa, 2006). If Irish potato farmers are convinced of the value of using inorganic fertilizer, they will adopt. Sometimes, the Irish potato farmers’ attitude towards the use of inorganic fertilizer may play a decisive role. Farmers’ attitude are more likely to correspond with their behaviour and in most cases, attitudes influence a broad range of behaviours. Indeed, an individual’s reaction to any stimulus in any situation depends on the perception and personality of the individual (Pfiffner and Presthus, 1997).
The financial liquidity constraint is often cited as an important determinant of fertilizer use (Abdoulaye and Sanders, 2005). As the rural credit market is not well developed in this region under the study, in times of difficulty, Irish potato farmers usually use their social networks or informal ways to attain money for inorganic fertilizer. Irish potato farmers with economic incapacity decide not to use inorganic fertilizer in Irish potato production.
The production and marketing of Irish potato in the highland zones of Plateau State has become an integral part of the rural economy, both at the rainy and dry seasons as it is cultivated as a rain-fed and dry season crop (Okunade and Ibrahim, 2011). The attitude of farmers towards the adoption of inorganic fertilizer is influenced by their expectation of economic benefits. Therefore, Irish potato farmers who adopted a particular production method do so in anticipation of economic benefits.
Asiabaka, Morse and Kenyon (2001) noted that, if Irish potato farmers do not adopt a new technology, it is because they do not understand well the technology, it is not compatible with existing practice or because they have perceived the technology to be too complicated or too risky and not because they are ignorant.
In spite of the advantages of inorganic fertilizers in boosting production and efforts towards making inorganic fertilizers available to farmers, DADP (2007) reported that, there is a crisis situation of declining domestic agricultural use and demand for inorganic fertilizers. Many Irish potato farmers have either not adopted the fertilizer technology or are not fully abreast of the importance. Sometimes the farmers’ attitude towards such innovation may play a decisive role.
Farmers’ attitudes determine adoption of improved technology; attitudes are evaluative responses towards the technology, and are formed as Irish potato farmers gain information about it. Adopters tend to hold positive attitudes towards the technology (Chilonda and Van Huylenbroeck, 2001).
In their study on the Assessment of Farmers’ Attitude towards the Use of Chemical Fertilizers in Northern Agricultural Zone of Delta State, Nigeria, Okoedo-Okojie and Aphunu (2011) found that responses on perceived attitudes towards fertilizer use shows that respondents have unfavourable attitude towards the technology. Respondents disagreed with statements such as: fertilizer is necessary for crops to do well (M= 2.25) fertilizers double the yield of crops (M= 1.95) once and fertilizer does not impair the quality of produce (M= 1.85). The aggregate mean of attitude towards fertilizer use was 80 percent, indicating that generally, the attitude of Irish potato farmers towards inorganic fertilizer use was unfavourable. Attitude, like knowledge and skill, determine the use of new innovations. Farmers’ attitudes are more likely to correspond with their behaviours.
2.5. Effect of Socio-economic factors on use of inorganic fertilizers
Factors militating against sufficient crop production can be social, political, scientific and technological including the use of fertilizer. This study discusses socio-economic factors influencing farmers’ use of inorganic fertilizers in Irish potato production. Broadly, factors that influence farmer efficiency may be summarized into agent and structural (Van Passel et al., 2006). Agent factors are those associated with the farm manager such as education level, age and social capital. Structural factors are either on-farm for instance farm location, farm type, farm size, fertility and drainage or off-farm such as policy, infrastructure, upstream and downstream relations. Brazdik (2006) groups these factors into three broad categories: farm-specific variables (intensity of inputs like labour, fertilizers and seeds; farm size; organizational structure such as tenure; crop variety), economic factors (markets, transport and prices of inputs), and environmental factors (wet-dry period, village). Most studies have examined the influence of farm-specific and economic factors on farm efficiency.
Salimonu (2007) potentially emphasized that increased cultivation on less productive lands is a major cause of declining yield among Irish potato farmers. To reverse the declining yield trends, intensification through the use of inorganic fertilizers and other land augmenting technologies is very essential. Fertilizer, generally refer to chemically synthesized plant nutrient compounds which are usually applied to the soil to supplement fertility.). The demand and use of fertilizer has a close interaction on the supply factors. In Nigeria, there is a significant unsatisfied demand for fertilizer, only about one-third of the demand is being satisfied (Singh, 2003). Inadequate supply of fertilizer has led farmers to rely heavily on organic waste as an alternative source of plant nutrients.
Past studies have documented some factors affecting application of inorganic farming practices among Irish potato farmers. Akpan and Aya (2012) identified education and extension services among the important determinants of fertilizer demand decision in Kenya. Olayide, Arega and Ikpi (2009) established that the intensity of fertilizer use increases with the family labour and physical access to fertilizer. Also, Amanze, Eze and Eze (2010) proved that output of crop, level of education, farm size and price of fertilizers were important factors influencing farmers’ use of fertilizer in arable crop production.
Adoption of technology is influenced by socio-economic factors which include age, family size, education, knowledge, source of information, and farmer’s attitudes towards the technology (Rogers, 2003). ).
Knowledge influences adoption; farmers who have adequate knowledge of technology use are likely to adopt it (Rogers, 2003). Young farmers are more likely to adopt a new technology because they have had more schooling and are more susceptible to attitude change than old farmers. Education is expected to enhance the decision making and the adoption of agricultural technologies. Family size plays a role on labour provision.
Adoption of new varieties requires more labour inputs. It is assumed that large families provide the labour required for improved Irish potato production practices. Sources of information, including extension, enhance the adoption of technology (Abebaw and Belay, 2001). Knowledge influences adoption; farmers who have adequate knowledge of technology use are likely to adopt it (Rogers, 2003).
In the existing literature, the analysis of the decisions on fertilizer use has mainly considered the factors lying within the public domain, for instance, prices and marketing, fertilizer provision and distribution, research and credit and on agro-climatic conditions and characteristics of the farm or the farmer such as education, age, experience and farm resources (Abdoulaye and Sanders, 2005). Earlier works on fertilizer use by economists focus on fertilizer adoption and assume that farmers make adoption decisions based on utility maximization. However, social scientists, especially anthropologists and sociologists, have argued that farmers’ subjective assessments of agricultural technologies are also important in influencing their use (Ifejika, Akinbile, Ifejika and Oladeji, 2008).
Finally, Franzel (1999) argued that higher income farmers may be less risk averse, have more access to information, have longer-term planning horizon, and have greater capacity to mobilize resources and hence increased likelihood of adopting new technologies. Being a male or married by a household head were significantly positively associated with adoption of improved technologies.
2.6. Summary of literature review
The literature review summarized previous works on farmers’ knowledge and attitudes towards inorganic fertilizer use in Irish potato production. They showed that most of farmers have low knowledge of inorganic fertilizer usage in Irish potato production; most of farmers have negative attitudes towards the use of inorganic fertilizer especially illiterate and aged farmers. In addition, socio-economic factors such as level of education, price of fertilizer, farm size and age of farmers influence the use of inorganic fertilizers in Irish potato production.
Gaps of literature existed on knowledge and attitudes towards inorganic fertilizer use but through cross referencing using hard and soft libraries tried to get the information recorded herein. Soft libraries like AGORA and TEEAL helped me later to find the required information on knowledge attitudes. It shows the need for use of a variety of reference materials also like journals, encyclopedia, book reviews and government documents.
