CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter will focus on the conceptual frame work, theoretical review which indicate the theory that guided the study. The researcher will review the literature published in this area and explore the views that have been given by various stake holders on the activities that can influence school attendance and strategies that can be used to retain pupils in school.

2.1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Figure 2.1 shows the likely influence caused by fishing activities on pupils school attendance and academic achievement.

Source: The framework was developed by the researcher using a model adopted from (Onen & Maicibi, 2004)

Source: The framework was developed by the researcher using a model adopted from (Onen & Maicibi, 2004)

School/class attendance and learners participation in class go hand in hand with academic achievement. Without attendance the programmed learning will not take place. Learning in class is designed in a spiral manner- in a progression which does not need creating gaps in attendance thus the end result is a short fall in acquisition of BASKV.

It is also the main reason that NCDC designs a curriculum for each level of class. A child has to fully complete what is designed for the particular level before moving to the next level. The curriculum in the earlier class becomes a spring board to the next one. Therefore, it is very important for a learner to attend and participate in the learning for better academic achievementand progress.

2.2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2.1 FISHING ACTIVITIES THAT THE PUPILS ARE ENGAGED IN.

Fishing is a form of primary production which is distinct from core agriculture. Traditional fishing is still basically conducted along the ancient patterns of hunting the wild living stocks in water as nature provided them(Owusu, 2009). However, fishing consists of integrated activity directed towards fish production. Fishing activities are concentrated mostly at places called fishing station. A fishing station is a special type of site located on streams, lakes, oceans beaches, or their banks where fishing activities are carried out. Such activities include net mending, removal of fish from nets, selecting/sorting of fish according to their sizes, repairing of fishing boats, setting and re-setting of nets(King, 2013).

Children undertake a variety of fishingrelatedactivities which are age and gender-specific. Fishing jobs are related to the type of fishing undertaken, such as hook, trap, line or net, and involve time spent on the lakeshore fishing; on the water fishing or paddling.When the fishing station is of lower capacity, some of these processing works are done at home. They include sorting, washing, salting, fish drying/smoking, stocking in baskets/bagging for sale; at the landing site supervising boats, nets, fishermen and the catch; mending nets at home; and processing fish(Westway, Barratt, & Seeley, 2009).For example, young children are often given the job of scaring birds/ animals away from Mukene drying on the rocks in the sun; upper primary schoolchildren often spend considerable time engaged in fishing-related activities: boys fish on the lake and load fish at the landing site, which are paid jobs, and girls are involved with Mukene processing for the household, which is unpaid work; male school dropouts often migrate inter and intra-lake as fish laborers.

In addition to that, (Westway et al., 2009) argued that, the offer of paid work provides an escape, and several of the study boys in Nanyolo dropped out of school for this reason. Vincent (seventeen years) explains: ‘This happened to Charles, because Patrickcame with money for buying Nile perch’. Boys earn easy money working for Patrick as fishmongers, buying Nile perch from other fishermen. If a boy’s relative or friend starts working for Patrick he is more likely to drop out of school as well. Charles (eighteen years) was encouraged by his friend Mudama (twenty-two years), who had no money to continue in s2 at Bulaya Secondary School, but was offered work by Patrick. Hence, parentsjustifiably blame ‘peer group influence’ for their sons’ dropping out, particularly in relation to the ‘lure of fishing’ and easy money.

The fisheries-related work that children do may beclassified into four broad categories: (a) Fishing and foraging for Subsistence, (b) Small-scale fish vending (c) Rendering services to a boss and its crew during operations on a beach and (d) Work in a shore-seine crew. With the exception of (a) whereby from the age of 7, boys and girls are encouraged to forage for fish during their spare-time, these tasks are distinctly gendered and contain a strong element of “apprenticeship” and the acquisition of what many observers researching children’s work would describe as “critical survival skills” as well as providing preparation for a career as either a fish vendor or as crew of one of the local fishing vessels(Divakarannair, 2007).

FurthermoreOjwang’ (2000) points out that because of abject poverty children flock to the beaches of Lake Victoria in search of work. He adds that most u from school to participate in fishing activities. These children are involved in loading and off-loading fish merchandise from boats into Lorries. The Nile perch, a fish species commonly caught in Lake Victoria is normally very heavy. Fishing activities take place from dawn to evening and pupils usually participate in them in the morning before going to school (Oloo & Ojwang’, 1994). This could affect their academic achievement as a result of fatigue that leads to poor concentration in class.

In a study carried out by The Training and Advocacy for Community Initiative(TRACOI) (as cited in Staff, 1998, July 29) in Suba district Kenya, revealed that child workers in the fishing industry are exposed to work-related accidents and injuries. Pupils are involved for long hours in pulling heavy fishnets from the water, loading and off-loading fish from motor boats to Lorries, which ferry them to the factories. This at times has led to some of them developing chest problems and bronchitis. The survey report further revealed that child workers are compelled to perform adult tasks, which often result in fatigue. Since most of fishing activities takes place at night, child workers are overworked and have inadequate sleep which affects their performance in class in that they sleep most of the time instead of concentrating in their schoolwork. This, the survey notes, leads to mental and psychosocial impairment. Furthermore, many have resorted to smoking in order to cope with the harsh conditions in the beaches. Child workers in the fishing industry are also exposed to the risk of contracting diseases such as AIDS. They are also vulnerable to illnesses such as malaria, typhoid, cholera, and skin infections which are prevalent at fish landing beaches whose most water sources are contaminated (Staff, 1998, July 29). When children are sick they cannot go to school. Likewise when they cannot satisfy their basic need of sleep, their concentration in class is affected. The same children are said to be intoxicated with bhang to enable them cope with the harsh conditions at the lake at night (R. Okeyo, personal communication, July 10, 1999). The TRACOI survey (as cited in Staff, 1998, July 29) indicated that it is the fishermen who give children money to buy bhang. This has at times led to indiscipline in school

However the researchers in the TRACOI used a survey in their study and the results of the study were generalized to represent the whole population which may not be the true picture of the area and that’s why the researcher wants to use a case study to find out an in-depth understanding of the topic.

2.2.2 INFLUENCE OF FISHING ACTIVITIES ON SCHOOL ATTENDANCE.

School attendance is of utmost importance for children to be able to reach their potential and become economically productive and engaged citizens. School attendance is not merely an issue of fairness and equality. It is an issue of practicality, the pathway to economic and social development. Children are the country’s next generation of adults. If they are not educated, future generations are undermined. Moreover, education is afundamental human right provided for in articles 28 and 29 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (Ray and Lancaster, 2003).

School attendance is a vital administrative record necessary in all the public primary schools in the State. It is recorded by taking the number of pupils‟ attendance multiply by the number of school days of the week and divided by the number of children in class. School attendance can be “habit forming” in the sense that, ceteris paribus, the more schooling experience a child gets the less likely that she/he will drop out of school. An increase in the household’s access to water and light and in its possession of assets such as television and telephone helps to put its children in category of “school only” status with no labor market participation (ibid) Not disputing the fact that school attendance is very essential for the achievement of good academic performance, At North Canyon High School they strongly believe, and research supports this, that regular attendance is essential for student success. In addition, a student’s best preparation for the Aims graduation requirement as well ass other standardized tests is regular daily attendance. This the school shares in the motto that “Every Day Counts” belief that the attainment of academic excellence requires attending school on a regular basis. The attendance records of school pupils they belief depends on the pupil, parent and school personnel. Parents and school personnel are to excuse pupils for valid reasons. Attendance incentive program that rewards good attendance pupils at North Canyon High School is that Students can earn up to a 5% bonus for good attendance at the end of each quarter and have this added to their final grade for a course. This is to encourage students to attend school regularly via engaging in relevant and rigorous instruction (North Canyon High School, 2007).In Ghana especially in rural areas, children can be found working in picking, fishing, herding and as contract farm labor.

Onomodeke (1995) observed that for a pupil or student to be successful in his or her academic performance, the pupil has to be regular in school, face learning problems squarely, avoid late coming to school and he or she should consult with the teacher. Yap (2003) pointed out that a child who attends school more frequently may influence the amount of knowledge he or she gains. However, the more the school attendance the less time a child has on labour activities.

In addition the failure of children in public primary schools in Niger State to complete their primary school education was due to their inability to combine school attendance with income generation activities to finance their education. Poverty and lack of employment or partial employment and illiteracy among parents/guardians have given birth to majority of child labour problems. Furthermore, Drusilla and Alan (2002) stated that child labour has been an acceptable way throughout history that the fact of young children. Working and the difficult conditions under which children work occasionally become more evident. In the mid19th and 20th centuries child labour became more visible because children were drawn into an industrial setting. Drusilla and Alan (2002) explained that children are engaged in child labour because of new technology, household dynamics, culture, market, and political failure which determine the labour force participation rate and educational attainment of young children. The researchers experience in Minna in College of Education revealed that parents engaged primary four (4), five (5), and six (6) pupils to work on their farms especially during the raining seasons. This situation adds to low school attendance of pupils and leading to poor academic performance in school. The International Labour Organization (ILO) (1998) estimated that 24.6% of children between the ages of ten and fourteen (10-14) in Nigeria were working outside home. This is not different from what the state is experiencing today among the young children in primary schools.

Attendance in school is important because students are more likely to succeed in academics  when they attend school consistently (Pascopella, 2007). It is difficult for teachers and students to build skills and progress if large numbers of students are frequently absent. In addition to falling behind in academics, students who are not in school on a regular basis are more likely to get into trouble with the law and cause problems in their communities (Hocking, 2008). What factors lead to student absenteeism and would the implementation of an incentive program motivate students to come to Campus regularly in last semester students of faculty of business and accountancy in SIMAD University are carried out in accordance of established goals, policies and procedures”

In European Union, it is commonly assumed that university students benefit from attending lectures. This assumption, however, needs to be tested, as developments in information technology are increasingly calling for a reassessment of the traditional approach to university education, largely based on physical attendance of lectures and classes, and a number of alternative weightless educational models, based on distance learning, are being introduced (Stanca, 2004).

The study of determinants of a college students’ academic performance is an important issue in higher education, among all factors, whether or not attending lectures and classroom discussions affects a students’ exam performance has received considerable attention (Chen and Lin, 2006). It is commonly assumed that university students benefit from attending lectures (Stanca, 2004). Lectures and other class meetings are a primary means of instructions in almost all undergraduate courses (Romer, 1993).

Issues on family background reasons included impoverished home conditions, where the students lived in squalor with their guardians or parents; who could not care less whether the students attended school or not. On a large extent this included lack of child supervise studies, frequent home relocations due to lack of proper care by the guardians or with the parents moving from time to time because of job related matter. challenged, hence lacking the motivation to attend. In the study, students also had negative things to say with their individual ratack, 2004). Some students viewed lessons as boring, did not find classes challenging enough and could not work and go to school at the same time, so they `preferred to earn money instead of go to school.

2.2.3 FISHING ACTIVITIES AND PUPILS ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Education is said to be the bedrock of socio-economic development of every nation. Indeed, no nation can develop without paying heed to the quality education of its citizens. There is the saying that goes ‘the best legacy that any parent can bequeath his or her child is education’. If this saying is to go by then it confirms another saying that goes ‘education is not a privilege but a right’

If education therefore is to be viewed as a right and not a privilege, much focus should be geared towards activity that should serve as a constraint in the achievement of basic education as a right. In this case, the fishing activity is seen as a major constraint to pupils enjoying full basic education as their right(Ife, 2012).

The involvement of school children in fishing activities is a major factor affecting academic achievement in coastal areas especially in Elmina. Children who sell fish product after school get stressed up and are unable to do their homework, learn what has been taught the previous day and may sleep in class during classes’ hours hence affecting their performance.

A causal-comparative study was carried out in Kenya to establish the influence of participation in fishing activities on academic achievement of primary school pupils in Suba and Homa-Bay Districts in Kenya. The participants of this study were Class 7 pupils drawn from 12 schools in these two districts. A total of 333 pupils that is, 171 boys and 162 girls participated in the study. The academic achievement scores, which were extracted from the schools’ end-term examination records, were used to compare the participants on the dependent variable. The results of this study showed that pupils who were involved in fishing activities had a significantly lower academic achievement mean score than those not involved. The results also indicated that boys not involved had a significantly higher academic achievement mean score than girls not involved(AUMA, 2016).

However this study was done in different areas that’s Suba and Homa-Bay districts in Kenya not in Kagwara in Uganda and may be the findings in those areas may not be the same with the ones in Kagwara Uganda thus the need to carry out the study.

Child labour is a global problem, and its elimination is being called for in the world. According to a recent International Labour Organisation (ILO) report, it was estimated that there are 250 million children between the ages of 5 and 14 years working in Developing countries –120 million are working full time while 130 million are working part time (Chakravarthi, 1997, January 26). These children are involved in such activities like picking coffee or tea regardless of whether it is a school term or holiday (Staff, 2000, October 30). They are also involved in fishing activities, salt harvesting, and sugar cane cutting.

Gugler and Gilbert (1992) report that child labour is a serious concern because large numbers of children are trapped in highly exploitative and abusive employment relations such as domestic work and bonded labour. In the dangerous and hazardous categories of work, brick making, commercial sex, mining, and carpet making are the most cited. Bequele and Boyden (as cited in Gugler & Gilbert 1992) reports that many children work for excessively long hours and do not receive adequate nutrition, health care, and education.

In Kenya, the exact number of children in the labour market is not known. This is because no statistics exist to show how many children are in the labour market. What exist are mere estimations from individuals. For instance, the ILO program co-ordinator claimed that there were three million children in the labour market (Staff, 1997, July 29). The Minister for Labour while addressing 1998 Labour Day, reported that three million children of school going age were out of school and the labour force would grow to 16 million by the year 2010 (Staff, 1998, May 2).

The TRACOI survey (as cited in Staff, 1998, July 29) in Suba district Kenya, revealed that child workers in the fishing industry are exposed to work-related accidents and injuries. Pupils are involved for long hours in pulling heavy fishnets from the water, loading and off -loading fish from motor boats to lorries, which ferry them to the factories. This at times has led to some of them developing chest problems and ronchitis. The survey report, further revealed that child workers are compelled to perform adult tasks, which often result in fatigue. Since most of fishing activities takes place at night, child workers are overworked and have inadequate sleep which affects their performance in class in that they sleep most of the time instead of concentrating in their schoolwork. This, the survey notes, leads to mental and psychosocial impairment. Furthermore, many have resorted to smoking in order to cope with the harsh conditions in the beaches. Child workers in the fishing industry are also exposed to the risk of contracting diseases such as AIDS. They are also vulnerable to illnesses such as malaria, typhoid, cholera, and skin infections which are prevalent at fish landing beaches whose most water sources are contaminated (Staff,1998, July 29). When children are sick they cannot go to school. Likewise when they cannot satisfy their basic need of sleep, their concentration in class is affected. The same children are said to be intoxicated with bhang to enable them cope with the harsh conditions at the lake at night (R. Okeyo, personal communication, July 10, 1999).

In Uganda, over one million people are engaged in the fisheries sector, many on an informal basis (Bahiigwa et al . 2003). The sector significantly contributes to food security, foreign exchange, employment and local government revenue. Throughout the 1990s the sector expanded due to growth in the export market for Nile perch, and in 2002 it was estimated to be worth 220 million dollars, contributing twelve per cent of the country’s gdp (Banks 2003). Fishing is a major source of livelihoods for rural and peri-urban communities situated around Lake Victoria  and other smaller lakes in Uganda (Grellier 2004; Geheb et al. 2008).

The fishing industry hires many unskilled workers who reside in landing sites, temporary fishing camps and more permanent fishing villages on the lakeshores. These sites are dynamic centres of activity attracting different types  of people – fulltime fishermen, male and female traders and fish processors, as well as service sector workers, in lodges, bars and restaurants and commercial sex workers. Many children live, and often work, at these sites (Westaway etal. 2007; Walakira and Byamugisha 2008), a sub-population that is often forgotten in studies that focus on fishing sites as places of adult activity (Westaway 2008).

Fishing communities are often remote, lack infrastructure and are marginalised from governmental development initiatives (Allison 2003). Services such as water, sanitation, health and education facilities are often poor or entirely absent in lake-side villages and landing sites (Grellier et al.2004; Keizire 2006).

Children growing up in such places, in common with other rural areas of developing countries are often educationally disadvantaged, in terms of their access to formal education, compared to their urban counterparts (Meinert 2003; Ray 2003; Ansell 2005; Lewin 2007). The demands of the fishing industry, the strong occupational identities and incentives to remain in fishing are thought to negatively affect the educational outcomes of formal schooling in these contexts (Maddox 2006).

Dierkes, et al. (2003) asserts that, given that poorly designed lessons, uninteresting learning materials, or unclear expectations, for example, could contribute to greater student disinterest, increased behavioral problems, or unruly and disorganized classes, classroom management cannot be easily separated from all the other decisions that teachers make. In this more encompassing view of classroom management, good teaching and good classroom management become, to some degree, indistinguishable.

The premise being that there is a significant correlation between communication in the classroom and the academic performance of students, this article approaches the learning process as itself a function of communication, whereby communication is understood as a two-way interactive process. This is not to say that learning is communication, nor is it to say that academic performance exists in a simple causal relationship to successful classroom communication: Successful communication between the teacher and students is a necessary condition of academic achievement (Maicibi, 2003).

If the needs of the students have been accurately identified, and if appropriate verbal and non-verbal communication is employed, the chances of success are correspondingly high (Dierkes, et al., 2003), Effective teacher communication can be learned, and it is the responsibility of teacher training institutions and supervisory bodies, as well as of the teachers themselves, to ensure an adequate awareness of modern communication theories (Phillips, 2004).

Performance test is the type of test which throws light on the ability to deal with things rather than symbols (Drever, 1981). In relation to educational research, academic performance of a student can be regarded as the observable and measurable behavior of a student in a particular situation. For example, the academic performance of a student in social studies includes observable and measurable behavior of a student at any point in time during a course. In social studies students „academic performance consists of his scores at any particular time obtained from a teacher- made test. Therefore, we can equate academic performance with the observed behavior or expectation of achieving a specific statement of or statement of educational intention in a research. Academic performance of students consists of scores obtained from teacher-made test, first term examination, and mid-semester test

Ada (2004) sees classroom discipline as a function of the interaction between teacher and students that bring about self-control and respect for authority. It entails creating and keeping books based on reciprocal understanding limits that must not be transgressed. Classroom motivation is another management variable that according to Fadipe (2000) is the process of influencing or stimulating a student to take action that will accomplish desired goals. A teacher can reward the learner in order to increase the probability of reporting the desired behavior. Secondary school students‟ academic achievement according to Fadipe (2000) takes into cognizance both quality and quantity of the internal and external results achieved. It implies that it is not just the number of graduates of the system that matters but how relevant and competent the graduates are in meeting the societal needs and aspirations.

Brannon (2010) explored the relationship between student academic success and classroom management beliefs on fifth grade English language arts and math scores. Brannon used the Attitudes and Beliefs on Classroom Control (ABCC) to identify teachers as interventionist, noninterventionist, and interactionalist, so that “the lower survey score results in a less controlling (noninterventionist) ideology, and the higher survey score results in a more controlling (interventionist) ideology. ELA and math achievement were assessed using the California Standards Test (CST) database.