HOW DOES TEACHERS LEADERSHIP STYLE AFFECT THE LEARNING EXPERIENCE OF PRIMARY ONE TO THREE PUPILS
AREA OF FOCUS
The study will focus on different management styles that teachers need to adopt to be able to deliver well to the pupils.
The research will then look at possible ways of adopting appropriate management styles that can help the teachers teach their pupils well to help them understand what the teacher is teaching.
The school
DESCRIPTION OF THE SITE
Area of study will be Kiira town in Wakiso district in central Uganda, its boarded by Gayaza to the north, Mukono town to the east, L. Victoria to the south, the city Kampala to the west and Kasangati municipality to the north east.
Kiira town council is composed of 6 administrative parishes including; Bweyogerere, Kireka, Kirinya, kyaliwajala, Kimwanyi, and Kira and the area has total population of 158,300 people,(UBOS, 2014), However the researcher will choose the population of Bweyogerere and Kirinya for the purposes of saving time and resources.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The issue of poor academic pupils has been so much prevalent with the pupils of Bweyogere , this has continued to puzzle management of Bweyogerere schools as to what could be the cause , this study therefore intends to investigate into how does teachers management style affect the learning experience of primary one to three pupils
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
- What are the different leadership styles used by the bweyoerere secondary school teachers.
- What are the factors that affect performance of pupils in schools
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 LEADERSHIP AND PERFORMANCE
2.1.1 Leadership
Leadership can be defined in different ways that it is hard to come up with a single working definition. Leadership is not just a person or group of people in a high position. Leadership is a process in which leader is indulged in various activities to achieve any goal. Leadership refers to the behavior/ attitude of a leader to collect and direct the individuals towards any goal. Leadership is a communication process of leader and individuals. So the effectiveness of an organization depends upon the effective leader and effective leader is that person who has an effective leadership style. Leadership is a very important factor for any organization or group (Chemers, 1997).
2.1.3 Theories of leadership
Among the various theories of leadership and motivation relating to effective organizational change management, perhaps the most prominent is the transformational-transactional theory of leadership. Burns, (1978) conceptualizes two factors to differentiate “ordinary” from “extraordinary” leadership: transactional and transformational leadership. Transactional leadership is based on conventional exchange relationship in which followers’ compliance (effort, productivity, and loyalty) is exchanged for expected rewards. In contrast, transformational (extraordinary) leaders raise followers’ consciousness levels about the importance and value of designated outcomes and ways of achieving them. They also motivate followers to transcend their own immediate self-interest for the sake of the mission and vision of the organization.
Such total engagement (emotional, intellectual and moral) encourages followers to develop and perform beyond expectations (Burns, 1978; Bass, 1985). Burns, (1978) observes that transformational leadership involves the process of influencing major changes in organizational attitudes in order to achieve the organisation’s objectives and strategies. Bass (1985) observed that transactional leaders work their organizational cultures following existing rules and procedures, while transformational leaders change their cultures based on a new vision and a revision of shared assumptions, values and norms. When an organization must adapt to changes in technology, its leadership is a critical factor in its successful change.
Bass, (1985) operationalized the work of Burns, (1978) by developing a model of transformational and transactional leadership, referred to in more recent publications as the “full range leadership model” (Bass and Avolio, 1997).
Transformational Leadership
The difference between transformational and transactional leadership lies in the way of motivating others. A transformational leader’s behaviour originates in the personal values and beliefs of the leader and motivates subordinates to do more than expected (Bass, 1985). Burns (1978), identified transformational leadership as a process where, “one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality”.
For transformational leadership style, the follower feels trust, admiration, loyalty and respect towards the leader, and is motivated to do more than what was originally expected to do (Bass, 1985; Katz & Kahn, 1978). The transformational leader motivates by making follower more aware of the importance of task outcomes, inducing them to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the organization or team and activating their higher- order needs. He encourages followers to think critically and seek new ways to approach their jobs, resulting in intellectual stimulation (Bass et al., 1994). As a result, there is an increase in their level of performance, satisfaction, and commitment to the goals of their organization (Podsakoff et al, 1996).
Bass, (1990), proposed four behaviours or components of transformational leadership to include charisma, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration.
Transactional Leadership
Transactional leadership involves an exchange process that results in follower compliance with leader request but not likely to generate enthusiasm and commitment to task objective. The leader focuses on having internal actors perform the tasks required for the organization to reach its desired goals (Boehnke et al, 2003). The objective of the transactional leader is to ensure that the path to goal attainment is clearly understood by the internal actors, to remove potential barrier within the system, and to motivate the actors to achieve the predetermined goals (House & Aditya, 1997).
Transactional leaders display both constructive and corrective behaviours. Constructive behaviour entails contingent reward, and corrective dimension imbibes management by exception. Contingent reward involves the clarification of the work required to obtain rewards and the use of incentives and contingent reward to exert influence. It considers follower expectations and offers recognition when goals are achieved. The clarification of goals and objectives and providing of recognition once goals are achieved should result in individuals and groups achieving expected levels of performance (Bass, 1985). Active management by exception refers to the leader setting the standards for compliance as well as for what constitutes ineffective performance, and may include punishing followers for non-compliance with those standards. This style of leadership implies close monitoring for deviances, mistakes, and errors and then taking corrective action as quickly as possible when they occur.
2.1.4 Leadership qualities and abilities
According to Trevisani & Daniele, (2015), the foundation of any relationship, both personal and professional, is honesty. People want to work for a leader they can trust a leader that has morals, values, and integrity. They want to work for a company that offers a great product or service they can believe in, and that has an honourable reputation. “Honest Abe,” or Abraham Lincoln, is said to have been one of the greatest Presidents to ever lead our country, and he didn’t achieve his success or earn that nickname by being dishonest. Your workers want to feel good about their jobs−it’s important to establish core values for both the business and yourself as a leader, and to then live and lead by those values as an example to your employees.
Without clear communication, your employees won’t understand your mission, goals, and vision. Employees want to work toward something they believe in, so it’s important they understand that they are working toward the same goals you are. Communication should also be consistent in establishing work expectations, giving constructive feedback, and in training new employees. With great communication, your employees will know exactly what they are working for, will rely on you, and will give their best effort for you (Arvey, et al, 2006).
When things go wrong, employees look to you for the answers and judge the situation based upon your reaction. Even if the company is experiencing a major downturn, it’s important to always be confident, calm, and set a good example. If you aren’t confident with the organization in a situation, then be confident in your own leadership skills. Your job is to maintain the happy work environment, and continue leading the team in their daily work (Arvey, et al, 2006).
Whether you’re starting a new business, or you’re leading a team in a business that’s already been established, it’s important to get employees invested in the vision and future of the company. You must be inspired and invested in the company in order to inspire others, like Larry Page and Sergey Brin, the founders of Google. The product of their own inspiration has inspired millions of others across the world, and has significantly impacted the world we live in today. Though inspiration often looks forward to the future, it’s also important for the present; it gives employees a reason to work, to succeed, and to do their best in everything they do. Make them feel invested in the company through inspiration and they’ll be loyal, hard-working employees (Trevisani & Daniele, 2015).
Judge et al, (2002) notes that; regardless of the situation, always stay positive. Positivity is essential to productivity, employee happiness, and work environment. When mistakes are made- even if they are serious, it’s important to look at the bright side of things. You are setting the tone for the work day, and your attitude directly affects those under your leadership. Bringing snacks, giving compliments, and even showing an appropriate interest in an employee’s personal life can have a significant impact on their work day.
According to Foti & Hauenstein, (2007) if there is a highly-important project, it can be difficult to trust employees without micromanaging. Trusting them to do their best possible work is a sign of strength in your leadership, and will encourage them to live up to your expectations. When it comes to delegation, the idea is to decide what strengths each employee possesses, and to assign them tasks that best fit those strengths. The ability to delegate successfully will lead to higher quality work and productivity.
Nothing shows commitment and humility like getting your hands dirty with the rest of the workers. Showing your commitment sets the example for others to follow, and leads to greater loyalty and respect for you as a leader. Always be committed in whatever you do, whether it is a promise to have a holiday party, a day off, or a meeting time. You are in the spotlight as a leader, and you will be judged harder for your actions than others will be. Set the tone of commitment, and others will follow suit (Arvey et al, 2006).
Although not a requirement, a sense of humor goes a long way in leadership. It helps create a positive work environment and enhances the feeling of camaraderie. Warren Buffett, for example, once said, “I buy expensive suits. They just look cheap on me.” Your unique personality and sense of humor shows your employees that you are more than a leader, and that you aren’t a machine, which encourages them to feel comfortable around you (Trevisani & Daniele, 2015).
Some decisions have to be made quickly, and catch us by surprise. In times like these, it’s up to you to think outside the box to find a solution. Your team will be looking to you in these situations for guidance, so a quick decision must also be a good decision. Henry Ford faced a situation like this when demand for his vehicles was so high he couldn’t possibly keep up. Instead of making the obvious decision to hire more people, he thought with creativity and developed the assembly line. You may even brainstorm with your team to build upon some of your ideas. When your employees are involved in a decision or idea, they often feel more invested, respected, and important. When you are in a situation where creativity is necessary, your creativity level and experience can either gain your employees’ loyalty and respect, or damage it (Foti & Hauenstein, 2007).
Sometimes we are presented with situations that aren’t in the textbooks, and for which you might not be prepared as a leader. The first decision isn’t always the best one, and taking your time to come up with a unique solution can be in the best interest of your workers and organization. Sometimes, leaders have to draw upon their instincts, past experiences, and mentors for help in these complicated situations (Judge et al, 2002).
2.2 TYPES OF LEADERSHIP
Three leadership types are very common in organisations and these include; democratic, autocratic and laisez faire among others as discussed below;
2.1.1 Participative or Democratic Management Style
Democratic or participative leadership style is one of the more popular forms of leadership in most organisations today. Democratic leadership style employs a system within an organization that allows the flow of free thought and the sharing of ideas between employees and administrators. Democratic leaders typically want feedback from employees and clients. They want input from other administrators and the employees on various organizational policies and decisions. Democratic leadership style puts everyone in an order of equal importance. Often, employees are given tasks that lead to the overall betterment of the company and if there is disarray, everyone from managers to employees feels the sense of burden and responsibility. Democratic leadership style also gives the managers a chance to listen and act on employee ideas (Armstrong, 2008).
Scott, (2007) stated that a democratic leader delegates authority to his or her staff, giving them responsibility to complete the task given to them, suggests that Staff will complete the tasks using their own work methods. However, the task must be completed on time. However there is slow decision making because the staff needs to be consulted. Also some employees may take advantage of the fact that their leader is democratic by not working to their full potential and allowing other group members to ‘carry’ them.
2.1.2 Autocratic Leadership Style
The premise of the autocratic leadership style is the belief that in most cases the worker cannot make a contribution to their own work, and that even if they could, they wouldn’t. McGregor (1960), called the belief system that leads to this mindset Theory X. Under Theory X workers have no interest in work in general, including the quality of their work.
Autocratic leaders attempt to control work to the maximum extent possible. A major threat to control is complexity; complex jobs are more difficult to learn and workers who master such jobs are scarce and possess a certain amount of control over how the job is done. Thus, autocratic leaders attempt to simplify work to gain maximum control. Planning of work, including quality planning, is centralized. This in agreement with the common sense view, that leaders are essential and have an impact on the performance of the organisation (James et al, 2010).
In contrast to the above an autocratic leader dictates orders to their staff and makes decisions without any consultation. The leader likes to control the situation they are in. Decisions are quick because staffs are not consulted and work is usually completed on time. However this type of leadership style can decrease motivation and increase staff turnover because staff are not consulted and do not feel valued. The concept of leadership held here is that leadership must change (Grant, 2009).
2.1.3 Laissez-Faire leadership style
Morgen, (2012) asserts that a laissez faire leader sets the tasks and gives staff complete freedom to complete the task as they see fit. There is minimal involvement from the leader. The leader however does not sit idle and watch them work! He or she is there to coach or answer questions, supply information if required. There are benefits; staffs develop to take responsibility which may lead to improve motivation. However with little direct guidance from the leader staff may begin to feel lost and not reach the goals originally set within the time frame.
Nsubuga, (2010) indicated that there is a very negative correlation between the laissez faire leadership style and the organisation performance. He established that leader who used the laissez faire leadership style tend to fail to follow up those they have delegated tasks to and consequently performance decline. They leave everything to the mercy of their subordinates, some of whom may lack the necessary skills and competence to execute the work. Others may simply not like to do the work unless they are supervised. Laissez faire style is not the best leadership style to use in organizations because complete delegation without follow-up mechanisms may create performance problems, which are likely to affect the organizations’ effectiveness. This is in agreement with MacDonald, (2007) study of laissez-faire leadership shows that it is associated with the highest rates of truancy and delinquency and with the slowest modifications in performance which lead to unproductive attitudes and disempowerment of subordinates.
2.2 FACTORS THAT AFFECT PERFORMANCE OF PUPILS IN SCHOOLS
Health of Children:
There are a number of studies which look at health of children, access to education and cognitive development (e.g. Alderman et al, 2001; Pridmore, 2007), but few which directly tackle issues connected with health and dropping out. Indeed, Pridmore(2007) suggests the that long-term effects of health and nutritional status of younger children and their implications for school enrolment, drop out and achievement are ‘less well understood’. Health problems are often linked to other factors and in particular, poverty.
Health (e.g. under-nutrition, stunting, etc.) is related to late enrolment which, in turn, is often associated with high dropout (see section 3.1.3). Glewwe and Jacoby (1995)investigated how child health/nutrition affected the age at which children first enrolled in school, with some not being sent to school at the appropriate age because parents/guardians do not think they are physically ready. Alderman et al (2001), studying children in rural Pakistan, stated that child health/nutrition had a greater impact on girls enrolment than boys. Subsequently, late enrollers frequently leave school early. Conversely, Daniels and Adair (2004, in Pridmore, 2007) explored height for age Z score at 2 years in association with schooling trajectory and outcomes for 2,198 children in the Philippines. The findings showed that: greater height for age protected against late enrolment among both boys and girls; taller boys and girls wireless likely to repeat grades and less likely to drop out during grade school. The study concluded that by improving early childhood nutrition, the likelihood of high school completion in developing countries may increase. Having said this, research in one area in Ethiopia indicates that lower body mass index (BMI) may contribute to children staying in school, probably because they are less able to contribute to work demands (Rose & Al Samarrai, 2001).Research indicates that school-aged children who suffer from protein-energy malnutrition, hunger, or who lack certain micronutrients in their diet do not have the same potential for learning as healthy and well-nourished children (Pridmore, 2007).Studies suggest that these children attend school less frequently, are more likely to repeat grades, drop out early and fail to learn adequately due to poor levels of attention, low motivation and poor cognitive function. Irregular attendance is often the result of children’s health problems. Whilst many pupils are often able to return to school, there are issues associated with long absences and reintegration, such as catching up with the other pupils. The PROBE report (1999: 33) highlights the link between illness-related absence and drop out, as ‘resuming studies after a prolonged absence can be difficult’. Indeed, health problems were given as the reason for drop out by around a quarter of respondents .
Early pregnancy:
There is a range of research around pregnancy, dropout and re-entry into schools. Studies indicate that pregnancy is a significant cause of dropout for teenage girls from school (e.g. Cardoso & Verner, 2007; Fentiman et al, 1999; Grant & Hallman, 2006;Hunter & May, 2003; Njau & Wamahiu, 1998 in Nekatibeb, 2002; Dunne & Leach,2005; Brock & Cammish, 1997; Kane, 2004; Boyle et al, 2002). In Dunne andLeach’s (2005: 38) research on secondary schools in Botswana and Ghana, the predominant reason for female dropout was cited as pregnancy.
Gender:
As highlighted throughout this review, gender cuts across a wide range of constraints that lead to drop out. This section focuses on the gendered aspects of dropping outwit an emphasis on demand-side factors in particular e.g. household contexts, gendered cultural practices etc. (gendered schooling practices and supply side issues are covered more in section 2.6.3). While the emphasis in studies of gender and access tends to be around the education of girls and enabling the retention of girls in school, in some contexts it is boys who are more likely to withdraw early (e.g. South Africa, Jamaica). Often this takes place in communities where initial access is largely equal for both genders, and the move out of school for boys is often seen as a pull to the labour market (see section Colclough et al (2000) talk about gendered cultural practices which influence girls and boys educational chances and experiences. They describe, for example, gendered roles in society which shape, ‘the balance of incentives for girls and boys to attend school’ (2000: 4). For example, in some societies the main leadership roles in public life are taken by men, which could potentially restrict the aspirations of girls; marriage of girls happens at a younger age than boys, limiting the likelihood of continued schooling; and labour market practices can influence both male and female withdrawals differently. Whilst not always the case (see previous paragraph), in many societies there remain fewer accepted incentives for girls to continue schooling, which can provide a push towards early withdrawal.
Thus while the gendered nature of access is context specific, it often reflects societal perceptions of gendered roles and the role education can play in affirming this. Gendered practices at the household level affect the opportunities of girls and boys to access and complete education. In household decision making processes around educational access, trade-offs between children are made. Studies indicate the preference many households have for the education of boys over girls, with girls ‘education often deemed less important and drop out consequently more likely (e.g.Admassie, 2003; Boyle et al, 2002; Kobiané, 2002; Odaga and Heneveld, 1995 in Nekatibeb, 2002; Rose & Al Samarrai, 2001). For example, the gendered division of labour within households often sees girls taking on household duties and child care duties which take them out of school (see section 2.1.3).
The nature of marriage, where girls move into the husband’s household, thus bringing fewer perceived benefits to their households, also restricts the perceived need for continued schooling. Perceptions of the value of girls’ education differed from those of boys’. Boyle et al1(2002: 46) suggest that households in their study tended to see boys’ education bringing greater future economic rewards, which was not to be the case with girls(whose futures were expected to be lie in family care and marriage).Research studies give examples of gendered household practices and convictions which appear to influence schooling retention.
Colclough et al (2000) describe how some parents in Ethiopia claimed that twelve years of schooling would mean their daughters could not perform housework and as a result may not be able to find husbands. Similarly, in Guinea parents mentioned that primary schooling was irrelevant to girls’ future roles. Both indicated a lack of motivation towards the continued schooling of girls. In addition, an ILO/IPEC (2004: 19) study highlights the propensity for girls to be excluded or withdrawn from school earlier than boys, ‘in the belief that, as a girl, she does not need to be educated or indeed should not be too educated in case it blights her marriage potential’. Indeed, educating a girl is often seen as a poor investment because the girl will marry and leave home, bringing the benefits of education to the husband’s family rather than to her own. This is not the same for all girls. In Glick and Sahn’s (2000) study (using data from a survey of 1725 households conducted in Conakry, Guinea in 1990), a number of factors appeared to influence the increased retention of girls in the education system .These included: more years of schooling for both mothers and fathers; household permanent income and expenditure; and an increase in female siblings aged 13-20years (however, an increase in the number of children in the household, under the age of five, had a negative effect on girls access and a positive influence on dropping out).Boys’ educational retention was not affected in the same way.
Research studies give examples of gendered household practices and convictions which appear to influence schooling retention. Colclough et al (2000) describe how some parents in Ethiopia claimed that twelve years of schooling would mean their daughters could not perform housework and as a result may not be able to find husbands. Similarly, in Guinea parents mentioned that primary schooling was irrelevant to girls’ future roles. Both indicated a lack of motivation towards the continued schooling of girls. In addition, an ILO/IPEC (2004: 19) study highlights the propensity for girls to be excluded or withdrawn from school earlier than boys, ‘in the belief that, as a girl, she does not need to be educated or indeed should not be too educated in case it blights her marriage potential’. Indeed, educating a girl is often seen as a poor investment because the girl will marry and leave home, bringing the benefits of education to the husband’s family rather than to her own
Rural/Urban Locations:
In many instances educational non-access in general (Konate et al, 2003), and dropout rates more specifically, are higher in rural rather than urban and peri-urban settings (e.g. Birdsall et al, 2005). Indeed, Birdsall et al (2005: 338) claim that ‘in many countries, the rural/urban education gap is the most important factor explaining education differentials’. There are a number of possible reasons for this. Households in rural areas tend to be poorer, schools more inaccessible, household members less educated and pressures on children to work to support the household (e.g. in domestic and agricultural duties), greater. Moreover children in rural areas often enroll later. While in urban locations, there tend to be more schools and the choice of options available to households are greater. Mugisha (2006) reminds us that this rural/urban divide in educational access is not always true, given demographic differentials within certain areas. He gives the example of slum areas in urban conurbations, and specifically one in Nairobi, Kenya exploring patterns of school enrolment comparing urban slum, urban non-slum and rural children (using data from the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey for 1993, 1998 and 2003, slum survey data and focus discussion groups with slum dwellers).Currently, over 60% of Nairobi’s residents live in slum areas. The results suggest that school enrolment is higher in urban non-slum rather than in urban slum, and is higher in slums than in rural areas at younger ages. However, this is only true up to age 9 for females and 11 for males, when school enrolment for slum children declines and the rate of decline is faster than their rural counterparts. Comparatively, enrolment rates begin to decline at 13 for rural males and 14 for rural females. High dropout rates in slum areas are attributed to poor quality primary schooling, limited access to secondary schools, increased vulnerability to risky behavior e.g. sexual activity, alcohol, drugs, difficult home environments and increased child labour. In Mugisha ’research (2006) the schools that serve the slum communities are mainly non formal and are generally characterized by staff shortages, crowded classrooms and lack of resources. But schools situated outside the slum communities are in most cases unaffordable to the slum dwellers and secondary schooling access is at time problematic .Kabore and Pilon (n.d.) explain how policy makers tend to regard urban areas a homogeneously having higher enrolment than rural areas, and not noting inconsistencies within urban areas. Looking at the capital of Burkina Faso ,Ouagadougou, intra-urban disparities (geographical and socioeconomic) exist in enrolment (both supply and demand driven). The number of primary school places does not meet overall demand, with outlying districts getting fewer. State education is concentrated in the centre of the city and private on the outskirts (especially in the poorer areas, where the government does not build schools).
A number of texts refer to the role language
Might play in dropping out (Lynch, 2001; Jackson, 2000). Specifically, when pupils are taught (especially in the earlier years) in languages which are not their native tongue, this can be particularly exclusionary. Jackson (2000) describes repetition rates increasing for children in Burundi (up from 28% to 40%) in the first two years of using French as the language of instruction. Kane (2004) uses the example of Moroccan Berber children who are taught in a classical Arabic not in daily use (as well as French), but is only able to speculate on the connection between this and high dropout rates. Research from Paraguay (Patrinos & Psacharopoulos, 1995) based on a 1990 household survey of children aged 12-19, indicates that ‘language strongly influences school attainment and performance’. In this sample children who speak only Guarani at home have equal access to schooling, but their performance in school (in terms of years of attainment and grade repetition), is considerably inferior to that of Spanish-only and bilingual pupils. It goes on to suggest that, ‘language influences school performance and is highly correlated with poverty, leading to dropout and low earnings’ (Patrinos& Psacharopoulos, 1995: 58). Here language was the ‘single best predictor’ of repetition and the ‘cost’ of being a Guarani-only speaker is about one year of schooling attainment.
Bilingual education is often seen as one means of improving the educational attainment of children prone to educational exclusions as a result of dropping out, in developing countries. Enge and Chesterfield (1996) in particular notes how bilingual programmes have been partly effective in increasing retention and decreasing dropouts of indigenous groups in Guatemala. Yet, it is difficult to attribute this to the bilingual effect, given schools also received teacher training inputs and increased instructional materials.
Processes and Precursors to Dropping Out:
In this section some of the known processes and precursors to dropping out from school are highlighted. While everyone’s story is different, certain patterns around process emerge. Drop out is not a distinct event, but rather a process of events, situations and contexts which work together to produce drop outs. Often there are precursors or signs that a child might be likely to drop out. For policy makers it would be important in these processes to try to locate points of intervention: critical moments where children might stay or leave school, and where action could be taken.
Repetition versus Promotion:
Various studies have looked at the benefits and non benefits of repetition versus promotion from one grade to another, within the context of schooling dropout and retention. Schools in many countries require that pupils successfully complete grade before allowing them to gain access to the higher grade. With situations where absences and temporary withdrawals are high, and quality levels low, repetition rates in many countries are high. For example Kane (2004, drawing on UNESCO, 2002)states that in over half of all African countries, more than one in ten pupils repeat at least one grade of primary school. There are added difficulties with this. Children repeating (especially if they were late entrants too) extend the age range in a particular grade; if children repeat more than once this may be problematic. Teaching to different age groups has different requirements, e.g. in terms of teaching/learning practices and curriculum. Yet, in some countries age ranges in a grade 1 class might range from 4 to 11 years, and in grade 9 from 13 to 21 years (Lewin, 2007). The lack of progression might lead some parents, guardians and children to question whether they should remain in school. This seems particularly the case for girls, where research by Brock and Cammish(1997) in Sierra Leone and Vanuatu, indicates that girls who needed to repeat would often be withdrawn from school instead, whereas boys might be more likely to repeat. Kane (2004) describes how boys repeat more than girls, with boys having a higher student performance. This seems to imply (but does not state) that the consequence of this is higher female drop out over repetition. Studies indicate a correlation between repetition and educational exclusion (and other precursors to drop out). Links between repetition and drop out have been noted both in the immediate sense (children needing to repeat might be withdrawn from school)and the longer term (children who have repeated are at some stage more likely than on repeaters to drop out from school) (see Nekatibeb, 2002; Brock & Cammish,1997; Grant & Hallman, 2006; Hunter & May, 2003; Rose & Al Samarrai, 2001;UNESCO, 1998 cited in UNESCO 2003; UIS, 2005). Based on research findings in two communities in Ethiopia, Rose and Al Samarrai (2001: 55-6) state: Repetition may also be a deterrent to completion. If children have to repeat grade they will be older before they reach the last grade of primary school, which again increases the opportunity cost of their time and increases the chances of girls withdrawing when they reach puberty. Furthermore, a large proportion of children repeat in early grades, which causes them to lose interest in school. Of the dropouts who had repeated a grade, two-thirds repeated the first grade. Ackers et al (2001) describe how in Kenya low transition rates between standards 6and 7 are partly explained because schools discourage weaker pupils from taking the Kenya Certificate in Primary Education (KCPE) exam in order to protect the school’s image. This means ‘weaker’ pupils either repeat or are pushed out of schooling.While repetition might be promoted as a means to support the educational achievement of pupils, its consequence might have the opposing effect. Grissomand Shepherd (1989, in Hunter & May, 2003) found that repetition increased rather than decreased the risk of dropping out, meaning that efforts to reduce grade repetition both early and late in pupils’ school careers may be an important means of dropout prevention (Roderick, 1993 in Hunter & May, 2003). Having said this, Colclough and Lewin (1993) suggest automatic promotion is only viable if accompanied by other reforms e.g. curriculum development and reorganization of teaching.
Low Achievement:
There is evidence that children with low achievement are more likely than those with higher achievement to drop out (Boyle et al, 2002; Hunter and May, 2003). Low achievement is related to a range of factors discussed elsewhere in this paper, for example, absenteeism, repetition, quality issues, household contexts, and demands on children’s time, etc. It is also looked at in more detail in section 2.6.5 on quality and outcomes .Jukes (2006) looks at research on early achievement and retention in school later on .Research by Liddell and Rae (2001, in Jukes, 2006) assessed the direct impact of test scores on grade progression in Africa, looking at the relationship between achievement early on and likely school completion: Children were assessed in Grade 2 and their progress through primary school monitored. Each additional SD scored in Grade 2 exams resulted in children being 4.8 times as likely to reach Grade 7 without repeating a year of schooling. According to these estimates, an increase of 0.25 SD in exam scores in the second grade would lead to children being 1.48 times as likely to complete Grade 7 (Jukes, 2006: 66, drawing on Liddell and Rae, 2001).
Late Enrolment:
Children who begin schooling beyond the official age of entry (in most countries aged6 years) are more likely to drop out than those who start at the official age; and less likely to complete a full cycle of education (Colclough et al, 2000; Croft, 2002; Grant& Hallman, 2006; Nekatibeb, 2002; Rose & Al Samarrai, 2001; Wils, 2004; UIS &UNICEF, 2005). The late entry along with early withdrawal further limits the number of years children have in school. As children get older pressure on them to work increases (see section 2.1.3). The UIS/UNICEF study (2005: 36) states The age of a child is one of the most important variables to be considered when analyzing patterns of school (non-)attendance … it matters whether children start school at the prescribed entry age and, thereafter, whether they are in the appropriate grade for their age. When children start late or repeat grades, it increases the likelihood that they will drop out before completion. Late enrolment is linked to a number of factors including health status of the child(Pridmore, 2007); household perceptions of the suitable age for initial enrolment; low socio-economic status; gender, and in particular the enrolment of girls; distance to school and how young children can manage the journey; and deferring costs (Brock &Cammish, 1997). Delaying the onset of education, is likely to drastically reduce the overall period spent in school and have serious effects on completion.
Absenteeism and Temporary/Permanent Withdrawals from School
Accurate attendance records of pupils in school are not maintained by all schools, making it difficult at times to see the link between absenteeism, temporary withdrawals and dropping out from school. Yet, research indicates that irregular attendance and temporary withdrawals can both be precursors to dropping out (Grant& Hallman, 2006; the PROBE Team, 1999).Irregular attendance and temporary withdrawals can be caused by a range of factors including: child ill health; ill health of family members; distance to school; labor requirements; pending school fees. As a result of irregular attendance or temporary withdrawal, children can fall behind at school and find it difficult to readjust on returning. The PROBE report (1999: 35) states, for example, that, ‘leaving school is, by and large, an irreversible process: once a child has dropped out, even for relatively short period, it is often hard to send him or her back to school’. While some of these cannot be foreseen, there may be ways that schools, education authorities and households can work to limit absence and better manage them when they do occur.
Certain groups of pupils are more likely than others to be retained. Previous studies have pointed to such student characteristics as age, gender, socioeconomic background, and race/ethnicity as risk factors for early grade retention (Burkam et al. 2007; Xia and Kirby 2009). Our analysis indicates that these same factors are influential in the early-grade retention patterns we find in LAUSD. Pupils entering school at relatively young ages, boys, children from low-income families, English learners, and Latinos are significantly more likely to be retained in a K–2 grade.10 Further exploration demonstrates that even after holding constant a student’s kindergarten reading skills and other factors such as school characteristics, these five student characteristics are significant predictors of retention. Yet some characteristics matter more than others, and having multiple risk factors predicts a much higher likelihood of retention.
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the methodology which consists of the research design, area of study, study population, sample population and selection, sampling technique, data collection method, data quality control, data collection procedures and limitations of the study.
3.1 Research design
Qualitative and quantitative research designs will be used. The researcher will use the above methods because many aspects will be covered in the study concerning the study topic, Qualitative research method will be used because it collects information within a short time while quantitative will be through interview to cross check what has been given.
3.2 Area of the study
Area of study is Kiira town in Wakiso district in central Uganda, its boarded by Gayaza to the north, Mukono town to the east, L. Victoria to the south, the city Kampala to the west and Kasangati municipality to the north east.
Kiira town council is composed of 6 administrative parishes including; Bweyogerere, Kireka, Kirinya, kyaliwajala, Kimwanyi, and Kira and the area has total population of 158,300 people,(UBOS, 2014), However the researcher will choose the population of Bweyogerere and Kirinya for the purposes of saving time and resources.
3.2 Study population
The study will tagert , teachers, pupils and parents.
3.3 Sample Size of Respondents
Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), argue that it is impossible to study the whole targeted population and therefore the researcher shall take a sample of the population. A sample is a subset of the population that comprises members selected from the population, (Amin, 2005). The study will choose a sample size of 50 respondents this is because, it is better to choose a manageable sample size for the purposes of saving time and resources.
3.4 Sampling techniques
According to (Amin, 2005) sampling involves selecting a sample of the population in such a way that samples of the same size have equal chances of being selected.
The sample comprised of 50 respondents.
3.5 Data sources
Source of data will be from both primary and secondary sources.
3.5.1 Primary data
Primary data will be obtained from the questionnaires administered on the target respondents to gain opinions and practices on the study topic.
3.5.2 Secondary data
Secondary data is data which has been collected by individuals or agencies for purposes other than those of a particular research study. It is data developed for some purpose other than for helping to solve the research problem at hand (Bell, 1997).
Secondary data will be collected from text books, journals, newspapers and reports.
3.6 Data Collection Instruments
The major instruments for data collection will be questionnaires and interview guide.
The study will issue self-administered questionnaires to the women and men since, questionnaires help to collect data within a short time and save costs. The questionnaire provides respondents with ample time to comprehend the questions raised and hence, they will be able to answer factually.
3.6.1 Questionnaires
The questionnaires will be used to collect quantitative data. The researcher will administer the questionnaires to respondents which will be designed basing on study objectives.
3.6.3 Interview Guide
Enon (1996) defines interview guide as oral and vocal questioning technique or discussion. The interview guide will be structured to comprise a set of issues on which the researcher wished to draw data. In this method the researcher will interview respondents face to face to obtain in depth information the study topic.
3.7 Data collection procedures
Upon receiving the University permission to carry out research, the researcher will seek permission from the local leader and once allowed to proceed with research, questionnaires will be administered by the researcher with selected respondents and interviews will be carried out with the selected respondents.
3.8 Quality control of data instruments
The instrument will be taken to the supervisor to check its correctness.
The researcher also will desighn questionnaires and take them to fellow pupils to check if they actually provided the response the study intends to investigate.
3.9 Data processing and analysis
Quantitative analysis of raw data was done. Raw data will take a variety of forms, including measurements, survey responses, and observations. Tabular and percentage calculations were used to list questionnaire responses.
Quantitative data will be analyzed using software like Microsoft excel, and statistical package for social scientists , this will help in ensuring that information got is analyzed within a short time.
3.10 Limitations of the study
The researcher may faced the following challenges in the course of the study;
The researcher may not get enough time to interview all the respondents, but this will be solved by budgeting for the time appropriately.
