Research consultancy
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
In this section, literatures related to utilization of instructional materials and quality learning will be reviewed in order to provide an in-depth understanding of the research at hand. While acknowledging the scope of the sources arguments, this review will seek to extend and contextualize what is claimed. The main concern here is to garner new insights that might be helpful in the improvement of teaching and learning process. The major focus is on the effective use of instructional material in the Ugandan education system and, in particular, in Bweyale Town Council – Kiryandongo District which is the study catchment area. And since this study is contextual in nature, this review will also purpose to establish gaps, if any, in those scholarly works, thereby enriching the study. The various sources of literature review will include; past research dissertations, textbooks, journals, conference papers and magazines. The chapter is organized in accordance with the specific objectives of the study.
2.1 How Visual Instructional Materials (VIMs) Contribute to Quality Learning (QL)
Visual instructional materials are those devices that appeal to the sense of sight. These include textbooks, pictures, photographs, flash cards, charts, maps, posters, chalkboards, drawings, cartoons and others. VIMs are important in education system and they are used in classrooms to encourage students’ learning process. These visual instructional materials are aimed at making the teaching and learning process easier, interesting and effective. They are tools that can contribute to the best dissemination of knowledge and skill. This understanding has been supported in the work of (Agina, 2005).
According to Kunari, VIMs are devices that concretize the information to be obtainable and help in making learning practice apple real, active and vital and they supplement the work of the teacher. VIMs arouse the interest of learners and help the teachers to explain the concepts easily (Kunari, 2006). Another source by Mary (2009) submits that visual instructional materials covers a wide range of non-text and non-audio material, everything from original art, prints, photographs and films, cinemas, video film, paintings drawings, cartoons and designs. Some can be categorize as fine art and others as documentary record. All these learning materials are also known as teaching aids and educational media.
Nasibi and Kiio (2005) assert that instructional materials are important in education because they motivate learners by linking instructions with reality; they encourage learners to utilize more than one sense thus increasing their attention and retention capacity. As well, visual instructional materials (VIMs) help teachers to clarify, establish, and correlate and co-ordinate precise conceptions, understandings and appreciations and support them to make learning more actual, active, motivating, encouraging, significant and glowing. Therefore, As Cuban (2001) puts it, proper use of VIMs helps to retain more concepts permanently. An alternative to these VIMs which Cuban has not emphasized on is that information needs to be presented also in a narrative form; this requires learners to read or listen to a text carefully, assimilate the facts and develop a mental image of them to enable the facts to be remembered.
Singh (2005) defines visual materials as: those instructional devices which are used in the classroom to encourage learning thus making it easier and motivating. The materials such as models, charts, posters, photographs, maps and others inspires learners and remind them afterward of what the lesson was all about. Besides being helpful to the learners, these VIMs also help teachers to plan and deliver lessons more effectively. For example, hanging a poster on classroom walls, will not only invite colour into the environment, they also act as helpful reminders and learning resources for learners.
According to Rather, VIMs are effective tool that invests the past with an air of actuality into learners. They help learners to obtain true knowledge at the same time in the understanding of the ancient marvels. When VIMs are properly used as teaching aid, they bring about the aspects of concrete idea and root participation of students in the lesson because when students see VIMs practically, they will be able to retain a certain percentage of what they have learnt (Rather,2004).
VIMs also encourage the body movement and they strengthen the control and if used in a right way for the right purpose, they do manifest the famous Chinese proverb that “one sighted is worth, a hundred words.” It is a fact that we acquire knowledge through our intellect. There is another maxim that “if we hear we forget, if we see we remember, and if we do something we know it” so it means that use of visual materials make teaching learning process more effective thus leading to excellent performance of the students (Jain,2004).
Kunari offers a word of caution in the use and employment of VIMs in the teaching-learning process. He posits that it is true that the VIMs concretize the information and make learning practical which is needed in any teaching and learning process, but at the same time, both the teachers and learners may be taken up and go beyond the time for a particular lesson obstructing the next lesson especially when the teacher tries to explain a VIMs word by word to the learners (Kunari, 2006)
In the earlier research of Andersen (2009) it has been shown that, the UIMs such as VIMs make students participate effectively in the learning process, thus leading to quality education that enable them to fit into the current society of technological changes. It is also understood that participation in the teaching and learning process is the key issue.
On the above piece of work by Anderson, the researcher critique is that, it is not automatic that quality learning is gained, it needs time. Some VIMs need time and practice for quality learning to be realized in learners. For example, to use a projector as a teaching and learning aid, the learners need time to learn how to connect a projector, how to operate it and to learn how to prepare the presentation slides and to fit them for projection. By and large, the effectiveness of this visual aid and its use can only be achieved by those with basic computer knowledge.
The quality of education can only be enhanced by the availability of relevant teaching resources; the general function of VIMs is to deliver message and to create a sense of understanding between the teacher and the learners. Makyikyeli (2003) argues that once both the teachers and learners are aware of this common function, then there will be a successful end result.
Kishore (2003) in his research found out that when visual materials are available to student for use, they stimulate “thinking and cognize.” This means that they widen the thinking ability of the students by helping the learner to see beyond the abstract. Therefore, the availability of VIMs to students is important because the more they get familiar with them the more they will widen their thinking ability not only for answering questions and doing exams in class but for their application once they are out of school. This argument is premised on the understanding that learning is not only for the present but also for the future.
The use of VIMs in teaching is one mode that enhances lesson plans and gives learners additional ways to process subject information. They are important tools because they supplement the work of the teacher and help in the research of the textbooks. This is true especially in the teaching of a practical subject like Geography, which requires the use of these materials more often than theory. The teacher can hardly introduce students to, grid references without having a map as part of the lesson plan (Kunari, 2006)
VIMs play an important role in the students’ academic performance but this can only be verified clearly when these tools stimulate, encourage and make students to understand the subject matters. VIMs are also used to clarify non-verbal symbols and to promote interaction among students and their subject teachers as well. These teaching and learning aids make lessons enjoyable and enhance full participation of the students when properly used. VIMs should be used as an important and integral part of the learning process. They should be used to create interest; to help learners understand the information being given; to help them recall major points that they must remember; and to help them develop a mental perception of the information.
The use of visual instructional materials such as pictures, posters, postcards, word calendars, regalia, charts, graphic organizers, picture books, television, and computers can help young learners to easily understand and realize the main points that they have learned in the classroom. When learners are able to utilize more than one sense, their attention and retention capacity is increased. Konomi (2015) states that when textbooks and pictures are utilized by the teachers to convey messages to the learners such as drilling, communication, understanding, predicting and discussion, they can remain as the learners’ confidant throughout the course or term.
Visual materials such as pictures, Films and videos help the visualization of various situations in the classroom. He also adds that visual materials support written texts in all disciplines. Another visual material, he emphasizes on is the PowerPoint presentations, an ideal tool for course presentation. This allows teachers to collect important information in one single file and then present it. These interesting presentations teach the learners key concepts in particular. They as well help them to increase their attention in the lesson (DenBeste, 2003).
Ogbandah (2008, p.12) researched on the appraisal of instructional materials used to teach migrant fishermen’s children in River State in Nigeria. He learnt that instructional materials such as visual, audio, audio-visual supplement and complement the teacher’s verbal explanation thereby enriching learning experience. He noticed also that these materials motivate learners to learn more, help to broaden their knowledge and increase their level of understanding.
Anderson (Ibid) notes any kind of an instruction whether in public schools, private schools or informal education is an existing activity which is in need of enhancement of educational atmosphere particularly visual instructional materials. This gives a clear picture on how the visual instructional materials influence the process of teaching and learning in Secondary Schools
Visual instructional materials give chance to speakers to make a more professional and consistent performance. Mohanty (2001) argues that the teaching career is full of limitless opportunities to enrich the academic survival of students; and while some ideas and educational goals will be easy for students to hold, others will need you to think productively to ensure that important learning aims are met.
2.2 How Audio Instructional Materials (AIMs) contribute to Quality Learning (QL)
Audio instructional materials refer to those models devices that make use of the sense of hearing only and can give an image of something, somebody and some situations. They include recorded materials, radios, cassette players and other. They all make teaching and learning more effective and interesting, and help the learners to have maximum benefit (Agina, 2005).
AIMs add a life-like effect to the textbook and other printed materials used in teaching and learning. For example, when a cassette is played, and the material is presented, this can automatically draw the learners’ attention and learners would have felt that there is another teacher (Cassette Player) in the classroom. Richards and Rodgers (2002) believe that AIMs also help and encourage the teacher to act as a facilitator by helping the learner become an interested, active and efficient participant in the whole learning process.
Maniruzzaman & Rahman, (2008) in their research paper found that AIMs are models and devices that can be heard and give an image of something, somebody and some situations in the teaching and learning processes. they are likely cheaper (recorded materials, radios, cassette players, cassettes)and available and need only the teacher to have a little training on how he/she can use them to make the teaching methods, techniques and materials considerably effective and interesting, and to help the learner have maximum benefit. They attract the learners’ attention, stirs up their imagination, reduces exhaustion, motivates them to be engaged in the learning process, and thus helping them to acquire expected proficiency in the language skills especially listening and speaking.
Audio instructional materials enable teachers to modify the teaching method and techniques, and change the classroom situation quickly and immediately as necessary, and on other hand, they attract the learners’ attention, stirs their imagination, reduces their exhaustion, motivate them to be engaged in the learning process, and thus helping them to acquire expected proficiency skills especially in listening and speaking (Shukla, 2019).
In other words, AIMs also add a life-like effect to the text books and other printed materials used to teach. For example, as soon as a cassette player is played and the material is presented, the learner is immediately drawn to it and feels the presence of another teacher in the classroom.
AIMs function as learning facilitators and teaching machines, and motivate the learners and arrest their attention during the instructional process. Though such AIMs are greatly helpful in teaching and continually expanding the scope with the availability and development of technology, their use in secondary schools are still limited. For example, the native speaker’s voice and accent through the audio tape make the learners enthusiastic and excited. This can greatly facilitates the learner’s understanding of the linguistic as well as the communicative aspects. Maniruzzaman (2008) notes that different teaching materials devised and recommended by experts are intended to make the learners interested and motivated.
With the help of AIMs, the teacher can, moreover, successfully deal with the weak and indifferent learners. These aids are seen to reduce the teacher’s talk and the chalk method, and reversely increase the learner’s interaction and active participation. Rahman (2008) highlights that the teacher can also provide as much practice as is necessary by using audio tapes; but it is to be remembered that AIMs should be purpose oriented as well.
There are some significant reasons for carefully designing and using AIMs; motivating the learner, attracting and maintaining the learner’s attention, reinforcing the main ideas of the lesson, illustrating and supporting the spoken literature, minimizing misunderstanding of the learner, increasing retention, adding a touch of realism, saving both class time and expenses, helping the teacher to communicate more dearly and quickly so that the learner can understand the content clearly and easily, and helping the teacher clarify the thinking and provide a logical path for communication (Agina, 2005).
2.3 How Audio-Visual Instructional Materials (AVIMs) contribute to Quality Learning (QL)
Audio-visual instructional materials (AVIMs) are a combination of devices which appeal to the sense of both hearing and seeing; and are categorized into five categories: display boards (chalkboard, flannel board, collage and mural three dimensional materials; (models, mobiles, sand tables, dioramas and salt maps) graphic materials; (maps, globes, diagrams, charts and graphs) electronic aids; (radio, television, motion picture and the computer tape recorder, overhead projector, smart board, slides and the Internet) and real objects and specimen (Heinich, 2002).
The term AVIMs) is commonly used to refer to those IMs that may be used to convey meaning without complete dependence upon verbal symbols or language. Anzaku (2011) highlights that AVIMs include materials and equipment alike, and materials are considered to be system, or body of content of potential value when put to work, while equipment or instructions, often referred to as hardware, components, are the means of presenting such content.
According to the two definitions by Heinich and Anzaku, a textbook or a reference material for example, does not fall within this grouping of instructional materials but an illustration in a book does. Some audio-visual components are in the nature of process and experience, dramatizing an event or a procedure, and some of the audio-visual in motion forms, for example, the motion pictures require the use of equipment to release their latent value.
Natoli (2011, p.102) stated that “audio-visual materials are rich opportunities for students to develop communication skill while actively engaged in solving meaningful problems”. In other words, learners definitely like it more and learn better if they are engaged in important and appealing activities. For example, when the teacher involves them in bulletin board display, this will enhance their choice of colour and aid their understanding of the concept in question or when they join the teacher in dramatization of an event or a process.
The use of AVIMs in teaching and learning process has revealed that they are useful tools that can convey complicated concepts and ideas in an interesting and interactive manner as well as facilitating procedural demonstration. Jarosievitz (2011); Zheng, Warschauer, Lin and Chang (2016); De Sousa, Richter and Nel (2017) highlight that animation and information presented onscreen provides a different learning experience from that of printed text which are beneficial to the development of critical thinking.
The study carried out by Mathew and Alidmat (2013) on the Usefulness of Resources in English as a Foreign Language Classroom shows that textbooks and other audio materials are often viewed to be an inspiration and to provide motivation in classroom instruction. They also found out that the use of AVIMs in teaching stimulates thinking and improves learning environment in a classroom. Arora (2013) notes that AVIMs such as motion pictures can develop a continuity of thought and provide experiences not easily obtained through other materials and contribute to the efficiency, department and variety of learning.
The researcher therefore, concur with the above points adding that, the effective use of AVIMs substitutes monotonous learning environments and helps students to develop and increase personal understanding of the areas of learning when they experience a successful and pleasant learning in classroom.
The AVIMs provides significant gains in informal learning, retention and recall, rethinking and reasoning, activity, interest, imagination, personal growth and development. AVIMs are very important in teaching and learning processes because information obtained from their good use makes learners develop positive attitude toward their own environment, especially when they are locally made and used in the class. Gopal (2010) asserts that their familiarity also gives a background for understanding the information. For instance, map of Africa or East Africa drawn and well labeled for a Geography class, from local materials cartoons or manila papers.
The effectiveness of visual materials in learning can be estimated in percentages, that is to say; about 40% of our concepts are based upon visual experience, 25% upon auditory, 17% on tactile, and 15% upon miscellaneous organic sensation and 3% upon taste smell (Swank, 2011).
The use of AVIMs helps learners to retain about 85% of what is learnt in classroom session. The above explanation shows and makes it clear why AVIMs are critical in the teaching and learning processes, and if properly used can bring the different contributions from the senses together to get 100% clarity (Jadal, 2011).
Audio-visual instructional materials are very useful teaching and promotional aids. They provide rich experiences and contribute to the depth and variety of learning, making it permanent. As McNaught (2007) states, audio-visual materials also facilitate the acquisition, retention and recalling of lessons learned because they seem to arouse the maximum response of the whole organism to the situations in which learning is done.
It is also important to note that the AVIMs do not only play role in the propagation of information, data, facts and clues but also they influence the mentality, psychology, and the grasping level of the learners in the classroom. On the other hand, they greatly motivate and inspire the teachers to adopt the latest creative and innovative aids.
Chukwuemeka and Aneale (2008) in their research found that acquisition of skill is at the heart of teaching and learning and generalization and transferable intellectual and physical capabilities needed to learn concepts and broad principles used in making valid inductive inference. For example skills in science subjects like physics, needs observation, inquiry, organization, inferring controlling variable. Therefore, in order to focus learners’ attention and sustain their interest, thereby acquiring the skill of observation in a learning session, the teacher can use materials such as film strip projector, slide projector and so on.
The recently technology in the world today and most especially in the field of education in general is converting more rapidly a common phenomenon to integrate textbooks with AVIMs as additional or supplementary resources for classroom setting; hence making learning activities more productive and more individual-focused. For example, learners can read in books about ‘Animal Farm’ and is able watch it on Television, this helps them to produce the materials needed thus opening ways of individualizing instruction (Kochhar, 2004).
According to Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences, students learn in a variety of different ways including through listening or auditory input. Some students are better auditory learners than others and may see more academic improvement when AVIMs are used in the classroom. The research concur with Howard on this point for the reason that, when learners learn at different paces and through different methods, using AVIMs teaching, it become one way for them of achieving engagement and better retention of ideas rather than relying solely on speech through direct instruction.
The essence of this chapter is that teaching and learning that involves utilization of various instructional materials (textbooks, pictures, photographs, flash cards, maps, films, slides, charts, television globes, diagrams, charts, radio, television, motion picture and video and others) help both teachers and students to accomplish the objectives of Education. When learners interact with different types of instructional materials, they can easily comprehend words associated with the learning material. Teaching and learning method that heavily rely on talking and listening or writing and reading do not convey the message sufficiently unless accompanied by the sensory presence of the objects and events to which words stand for.
