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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This chapter covers the background of the study, Statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions, and scope of the study, significance of the study and definition of terms.

1.1 Background of the study

The introduction of UPE accompanied by government commitment, including political leadership resulted into a surge in primary school enrolment from 2.7 million pupils in 1996 to 5.3 million in 1997 and to 7.1 million in 2005.  The ever increasing primary school enrolment has consequently led to improvements in gross enrollment ratio (GER). Whereas GER in the decade preceding 19976 had increased by only 39%, by 2004 GER had risen by 104.42% (Bategeka et al., 2004). This suggests that Uganda is on the verge of attaining the UPE Millennium Development Goals (MDG) in as far as access is concerned.   However, much as primary school enrolment has been a success, the concern now is with regard to the internal efficiency of primary education that is the ability to retain pupils until they graduate from primary school. The incidence of pupils dropping out of school is palpable in primary six and primary five which is 34.9 percent and 22.1 percent respectively (NSDS, 2004). The comprehensive evaluation of basic education in Uganda report (2005) asserted that UPE dropout has escalated from 4.7% in 2002 to 6.1% in 2005.  It further notes that of the Net Enrollment Ratio (NER) for boys and girls is 93.01%, however 55% of boys and 54.6% of girls reach primary four, while 31.2% of the boys and 27.7% of girls reach primary seven. According to Kakuru (2010)Uganda as a country has faced numerous retention challenges of pupils’schools despite the introduction of universal primary education.

TABLE 1:       Total Enrolment and Drop-out Rates in Uganda From 1993-1999

The Source:   Education census

The current Ugandan education structure has been in place since 1963 and came as a result of recommendation made by the Castle Commission. The country’s formal education system starts with seven years of primary school (ages 6-12), which is ‘supposedly’ compulsory and free according to the current Universal Primary Education policy/programme. It is followed by six years of secondary education for ages 13-18, which is non free and non compulsory, though plans are under way to make it universal. This level is succeeded by three to five years of University or tertiary education depending on the profession selected by the individual (Kakuru 2010).

Primary education is central to the whole system and to the life of citizens in general. It enables individuals to acquire literacy, numeric and communications skills, as well as developing cultural, moral and spiritual values (MOES, 2009). It is for this reason that primary education has been made “free” through UPE programme.

At the most basic level, there is an obvious positive spillover effect for society from having an educated and literate population. Education leads to higher incomes and is a direct path out of poverty. In addition, there are positive externalities for the individual and for society as a whole. These may include healthier individuals, leading to longer life expectancies and less medical expenditure. Increasing educational outcomes in a developing country context like Uganda is even more important since education is a pathway out of poverty,

Lutz et al. (2008) argue that complementing primary education with some secondary education gives an even stronger boost to economic growth. They show that GDP growth estimates might be five times higher if this policy were introduced,  The effects of social settings on child retention was studied by Namaganda 2008 in kotido district .However, this concept has not been studied in Bundibugyo and yet  pupils retention is still a major problem in the district.

The most common reasons for high drop-out rates in Uganda, according to Uganda Census (1998) are associated with pupils’ lack of interest in studies, pregnancies, early marriages, school fees, child employment, sickness, dismissals, and other reasons which account for about 17%.

Basing on this back ground therefore this study intends to investigate into the influence of social factors on retention of pupil with specific reference to Harugale sub-county.

1.2       Statement of the Problem

Education is a fundamental human right according to the United Nations international children’s fund, (UNICEF, 2009), countries across the globe invest significant amount of their GDP on improving of the quality of education as it is viewed as aback bone of the economic development of a country.

In 2004 primary leaving examinations (PLE), in Bundibugyo district, out of 3500 candidates who had registered, only 2545 sat at the end of the year leaving 955 candidates without sitting the Primary Leaving Examinations. It may be near to the truth that the dropout rate that year was 27.3 %.( Uganda National Examinations Board results, UNEB, 2004).

According to the Ministry of Education And Sports record, (2014), the government of Uganda allocated hundreds of billions to the ministry in order to ensure the development of education sector by improving on the quality of education and reducing on the number of student drop out this is further evidenced by the improved budgetary allocations to the education sector. For instance, whereas in 2011/2012 education comprised 15% of the total government expenditure, by 2012/2013 it had reached 17%, (MOES, 2013). but despite the numerous efforts by the Uganda government to invest heavily in the ministry the rate of drop out from school has remained high, according to the school records of Bupompoli primary school the drop rate of the pupils is at 80% while Izahura primary school is even much worse at 85% , and above all the quality of education is also in question this has continued to puzzle many district leaders including Bundibugyo as to what could be the problem  of children failing to be retained at school which has lead to  high illiteracy rates in the district , therefore this study questions the influence of social factors on the retention of pupils at primary school, with specific reference to Harugale sub county , Bundibugyo TC  in Bundibugyo district.

1.3    Objectives of the study

1.3.1 General objective

The overall purpose of this study is to establish the social factors influencing pupils’ retention in primary schools under Universal Primary Education (UPE) in Bundibugyo TC and Harugale sub counties in Bundibugyo District.

• Specific objectives

1. To examine the factors that influence pupil retention in primary schools.
2. To identify strategies aimed at retaining pupils in school so as to complete the primary cycle.

• To identify the various social factors that influence pupil retention in primary school at Harugale sub-county.

1.4    Research Questions

1. What are the factors that influence pupil retention in primary schools?
2. What are the strategies aimed at retaining pupils in school so as to complete the primary cycle?

• What are the various social factors that influence pupil retention in primary school at Harugaale sub-county?

1.6       Scope of the Study

1.6.1        Study Scope

The study will cover the various social factors that influence pupil retention in primary schools, various social factors that influence pupil retention in primary school, the factors that influence pupil retention, strategies aimed at retaining pupils in school so as to complete the primary          cycle.

1.6.2 Geographical Scope

The study will be carried out at Harugale sub-county in Bundibugyo Town Council Bundibugyo district.

1.6.3 Time scope

The period of data to be considered in the organization will be from 2012-2014 and period of body of knowledge in reviewing literature will be from 2000-2014, while the study will be carried out from April to October 2014.

1.7       Significance of the Study

1. The study will assist future researchers with enough information regarding the different social factors that influence pupil retention in primary schools.
2. The study will also enable the government make informed decisions regarding on the different ways of pupil retention in primary schools.

• The study will also enable the different primary schools with enough information regarding different ways on how to increase the rate ofretention of childrenin primary schools.

1. The study will also be beneficial to the donors with enough knowledge on how to increase on the rate of retention of pupils in different primary schools and with different strategies to retain children.

CHAPTER TWO:

 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0. Introduction

The aim of the study was to investigate the social factors influencing pupils’ retention in primary schools under Universal Primary Education (UPE). It will specifically concentrate on various social factors that influence pupil retention in primary school, the factors that influence pupil retention in primary schools, strategies aimed at retaining pupils in school so as to complete the primary cycle.

2.1. Theoretical review

Scholars have long held an interest in pupil departure, partly because it is a complex human behavior; partly because it is related to other factors like status attainment, self-development, and the development of human capital; and partly because it is a place where theory can have an impact on practice. Retention studies are important to institutions because if institutions can maintain or increase their retention rates, they can survive, and possibly prosper.

Since pupil retention is by definition a process that occurs over time, theoretical models tend to be longitudinal, complex, and contain several categories of variables that reflect both pupil and institutional characteristics. Theories of departure provide an explanation of why pupils    leave school. Theoretical models of departure are models based on theories, while models of departure identify factors assumed to be related to retention without providing an explanation of why the factors act the way they do. Theories, theoretical models, and models are used somewhat interchangeably in the literature.

Pupil retention models are complex because they contain a large number     of variables, often set in a casual pattern. A variable could either affect retention directly, or it could affect some other variable that has a direct effect on retention. For example, high school grades could directly affect rates of retention (e.g. the higher the high school grades, the higher the rate of retention). High school grades could also be thought to affect retention indirectly; that is, the higher the high school grades, the higher the school grades-and the higher the school grades, the higher the rate of retention.

Since 1970, the main theoretical tradition in the study of pupil retention has been sociological, involving a search for commonalities of behaviors that distinguish groups of pupils who stay from groups of pupils who leave. Psychological and socio-psychological approaches, concerned with how individuals assess themselves in an educational context, began to develop after 1980. In the decade of the 1990s there was an increasing interest in how economic factors affect retention and in how the cultural factors typical of subgroups of pupils affect retention decisions, particularly in terms of minority pupil retention. Other theoretical approaches have been taken, but have had little empirical study.  Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) offered a summary on pupil retention and other associated outcomes.

Vincent Tinto’s model of pupil departure has had the greatest influence on our understanding of pupil retention. His theory helped guide a large number of dissertations and empirical studies of pupil retention. The model posits that pupils enter school with family and individual attributes as well as preschool schooling. They enter with certain commitments, both to finishing school and to staying at their school. They enter an academic system that is characterized by grade performance and intellectual development, which together lead to academic integration, and they enter a social system where peer group interactions and faculty interactions lead to social integration. Academic and social integration work together to influence ongoing goal and institutional commitments, which, in turn, lead to the decision to remain in, or to leave school. This model was later revised through the addition of commitments outside the institution and intentions to remain enrolled, Terenzini (1999).

The explanatory theory underlying Tinto’s model came most immediately from the research of William Spady (1971), who saw an analogy between committing suicide and dropping out of school. In both instances, according to Spady, a person leaves a social system. The French philosopher and sociologist Emile Durkheim had found that some people committed suicide because they lacked the values of the social system in which they participated, and because they were not supported by a group of friends. At the core of his model, Tinto borrowed Spady;’s use of Durkheim’s two postulates to identify the concepts of academic and social integration. Academic integration was thought to be the result of sharing academic values, and social integration was viewed as the result of developing friendship with other pupils and faculty members. In Tinto’s model, a pupil who does not achieve some level of academic or social integration is likely to leave school.

While Tinto’s (1993) later model is similar in structure to his earlier ones, it offers another explanation of pupils’ departure: failure to negotiate the rites of passage. According to this theory, pupils would remain enrolled if they separated themselves from their family and high school friends, engage in processes by which they identified with and took on the values of other pupils and faculty, and committed themselves to pursuing those values and behaviors.

A second theoretical trust came from John Bean, based on empirical and theoretical studies published in the 1980s, an explanatory model of pupil retention, and a psychological model of pupil retention developed by John Bean and Shevawn Eaton (2000). Originally based on a model of turnover in work organizations, Bean’s model evolved into one where the overall structure was based on psychological processes, the model was similar to Tinto’s in that it was complex and longitudinal. The model differed from Tinto’s original model in two important ways, however: It included environmental variables (or factors outside the school that might affect retentions) and a pupil’s intentions, a factor found to be the best predictor of pupil retention. These factors were subsequently incorporated into Tinto’s model (1993) model.

Bean’s model, described traditional-age pupils, posits that background variables, particularly a pupil’s high school educational experiences, educational goals, and family support, influence the way a pupil interacts with the school or university that the pupil chose to attend. After matriculation (as in Tinto’s model) the pupil interacts with institutional members in the academic and social arena. According to Bean (1993). The pupil also interacts in the organizational (bureaucratic) area, and is simultaneously influenced by environmental factors, such as wanting to be with others at another school or running out of money. A pupil’s interaction with the institution leads the pupil to develop a set of attitudes toward himself or herself as a pupil and toward the school. Academic capabilities (as indicated by grade point average), feeling one fits in at an institution, and loyalty to the institution are a primary set of outcomes that are extremely important in determining a pupil’s intentions to remain enrolled, as well as actually continuing enrollment. Bean eta-l (1985) also developed a model of pupil retention for non traditional pupils which reduced the emphasis on social integration actors since non traditional (older, working, commuting) pupils have less interaction with others on campus than do traditional, residential pupils.

Bean and Easton (2000) model describes how three psychological processes affect academic and social integration. While attitude-behaviors theory provides an overall structure for the model, self-efficacy theory, coping behavioral (approach-avoidance) theory, and attribution (locus of control) theory are used to explain how pupils develop academic and social integration.

These grand theories of pupil retention of the 1990s, which attempt to simplify a very complex action into a series of identifiable steps, are inadequate to deal with either specific populations or individual decisions. Because of this inadequacy, a series of articles was written to provide increased explanations of certain aspects of pupil retention. A collection of these partial theories, which provide a closer look at a certain aspect of pupil retention decisions, was published by John eta-l in 2000. This volume contains explanations of retention behavior based on economic factors, psychological processes, campus climate, pupil learning, campus cultures ethical differences, school choice, social reproduction, and power (critical theory).

Of these theoretical approaches, a number of studies of the economic influences on retention have been conducted, particularly by Edward (2000) based on cost-benefit analysis, these studies examine how retention decisions are affected by ability to pay, family resources, pupils aid, perceptions of aid, and tuition.

Regardless of the particular approaches taken in a model, the general process of pupil retention remains the same: Both experiences before entering school and academic abilities are important; the way pupils interact in the social and academic environment once at school are important, as are factors from outside of the institution, particularly the cost of attending the school; and the attitudes a pupil forms about the institution and about his or her role of being a pupil at a particular     institution (Do I fit in? Am I developing? Am I validated?) are also important aspects of a pupil’s decision to remain enrolled.

2.1.2. OVER VIEW OF RETENTION OF PUPILS

According to Noddings (1987), high quality educators cannot separate sound educational decision making from the dispositions associated with “caring.” The values found in the theme of “caring” are crucial to educators engaged in growth (Noddings, 1987). The common threads that run through this theme include the role educators’ play in the lives of their pupils, in the welfare of the community, and in the ethics of personal and professional accountability (Ladson-Billings, 1995).

Educators are caregivers, models, and mentors and must treat pupils with respect, set good examples, and support positive social behaviors         (Lickona, 2001). The unit is mindful that there is no prototypical “teaching personality” but believes that standards would be incomplete without attention to dispositions. The Unit supports values, commitments and professional ethics that influence behaviors toward pupils, families, colleagues, and communities and that affect pupil learning, motivation, and the educator’s own professional growth.

Pupils that have economic, social, or educational advantages are the least likely to leave schools, while pupils lacking these advantages are the most likely to leave. Advantaged pupils are also likely to attend the most elite schools, and since these pupils are least likely to leave school before graduating, these schools have the highest retention rates, (Bandura, 1973). The reverse is also true. Community schools, regardless of their   quality or value, are lowest status institutions and have the lowest rates of        retention. To say that the most elite schools have the highest retention rates is partly a tautology, because one part of the definition of elite ness is the rate of retention. Nevertheless, elite ness and pupil retention run hand in hand.

2.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PUPIL RETENTION

School Infrastructure

School infrastructures include classrooms, latrines/toilets, water facilities as well    as the school location. Although the Government of Uganda owns the largest number of primary schools (about 80%), due to declining budgetary resources allocated to the education sector, the infrastructures have remained inadequate making it difficult to guarantee equality of education access to all, as well as ensuring completion rate to those who enroll (Juuko and  Kabonesa 2007). Shortage of infrastructures and competencies to cope with large numbers of pupils is a challenge in the implementation of Universal Primary Education (MoES 2007). The Uganda Bureau of Statistics,UBOS,  (Tomasevski 1999) reported 60% schools to be classified as “ non-permanent” and schooling still takes place underneath trees or outside in the field. Building and refurbishing schools to meet the requirements of the large number of learners with limited funds available remains a huge challenge. Such learning environment negatively affects children as they get overcrowded in small rooms and those who attend from outside get scorched by the sun during the dry season while in the rainy season they get wet (Ibid). Generally, children under circumstances and especially those in the rural who get a chance to access education hardly survive till the end of the whole system. To those who survive in the system, both their output and outcomes are greatly compromised in way that most of them can never join secondary education due to poor performance in primary leaving exams since UPE has lowered the performance of children as well as lack of school dues at primary level.

Clean environment leads to a sound mind, with budgetary constraints and inadequate infrastructures such as toilets and clean water in UPE schools; one wonders whether with limited budget, schools can have adequate facilities to make conducive learning environment for the pupils. Although UPE on paper promises to provide adequate school facilities through the facility grant, the reality on the ground shows that rapid enrolment was not matched with increase in infrastructure thus putting high pressure on the existing ones.

In 2000 only 8% of all primary schools under UPE program, had sufficient latrines for the pupils, and only one third of these schools had separate latrines for girls. This implies that 92% of all schools suffered from lack of latrines and two thirds had not separate toilets for boys and girls. This has a negative effect on the children’s survival in schools as many of the drop out of schools due to sanitation related sickness. This is evidenced in the report from the Ministry of health (2000) that about 2.7% of all pupils’ time is lost to sickness from sanitation related illnesses and most of them never return in schools. This phenomenon is common in rural schools than in urban which show some discrepancies in the implementation of UPE program that contributes to the limited retention (MOFPED 2007). Besides latrines/toilets, water is necessary for maintaining equality of access, survival, output and outcome of education for all children. However, access to clean water for many schools has remained a problem in the reality of UPE, an issue that pushes children out of schools (Juuko and Kabonesa 2007). According to the MoES 2004 abstract, most primary schools use well/spring water (33.24%), followed by the borehole water of 28.63% which is not safe for drinking while very few urban schools use piped water. The fact that the Government had not taken the responsibility of providing water to these schools, fetching water for school and teachers have become another burden for the pupils and especially those in the rural where water is scarce making children from rural areas to be more disadvantaged than those in urban areas who have piped water. This double burden of making children miss classes while struggling for communal water with the villagers as well as child labouring is a serious problem that is affecting UPE in practice which consequently leads to limited retention.

Costs of universal primary education

Despite the fact that the implementation of UPE came with the abolition of school fees and PTA charges, many children still fail to access school while others dropout because of the hidden costs borne by parents. The 2005/2006 Uganda National Household Survey found that 8% of households hardly had a meal a day due to poverty. At this rate, it is obvious that such family would rather spend little income they have on food rather than meeting hidden costs of education and especially the uniform which is compulsory. In cases where parents have a problem in meeting these costs, children are sent away from school until they get such money contrary to the Education Act (2008) provisions. To some extent, this causes some children to drop out of school while those who manage to go through to primary seven are likely to perform poorly due to time wasted and humiliation faced as they are always depicted as poor and unable to meet these costs.

This scenario is also found in the provision of Lunch as children from very poor families who cannot afford lunch go without lunch which by itself is humiliation enough, leave alone studying on an empty stomach. Since UPE does not provide lunch in schools, this incidence happens to many children whose parents can’t afford to pay or pack some snack thus compromising equality of survival on the side of poor children. Failure to provide free meals in UPE schools is blamed on the Government; since this would be a strategy to retain children in schools (ibid) except that the Education Act (2008) gives this role to parents/guardians.

In Uganda like in many African countries patriarchal characteristics are still strong, some parents and teachers favor boys more than girls. The reason is that many parents especially those in the rural think that girls get educated in order to know how to read, write and then be better daughters, wives and mothers, rather than equipping then with skills and knowledge that can enable them to handle their lives well as human beings and progressing their career of choice. A study by Atekyereza 2001 showed that married daughters are less likely than married sons to remit cash income to their parents. For such reason,

In cases where parents cannot afford to meet educational costs for all children, boys are favoured over the girls (Juuko and Kabonesa 2007). This among others remains a big concern in the practice of UPE which causes disparities in access and survival in education system for both girls and boys.

HIV infected and affected children

UPE in practice seems unfair to orphans and HIV/AIDS infected and affected children as it does not cover them enough. Due to lack of incentives, these children are excluded from the whole system. The extent, to which they access schools and survive in them once they come to know their HIV status, is not known very well. Their participation in school might imply some additional costs and at the same time, their families might be in need of some subsidies that would encourage school attendance on the part of the infected children as well as enable them cover some of their medical costs and other healthy needs.

But because UPE programme has not put into consideration their needs, these children among others from a sizeable number of those who drop out of school due to factors beyond their control. Besides their ill health problems and stigmatization from their fellow children and the teachers; many of them belong to poor families, in rural areas and urban shanty towns. This factor becomes a big challenge to UPE in ensuring equality of survival for them.

Instructional materials

Instructional materials include textbooks, teachers’ guides, blackboards, chalk and other class facilities that are necessary to ensure good quality education. Although the Government seems to have purchased a large number of textbooks as part of UPE programme implementation strategy, accessing them is limited to few schools which are well equipped. Worse still, due to high enrollment rates, these books are never enough; for example in (2004), it was reported at national level that textbook copies for primary four were on average 238,475 to 1,045,514 enrolled pupils, which is equivalent to 1:23 pupils, followed by primary three with an average of 214,217 to 1,150,525 pupils and then primary five with an average of 187,725 to 923,709 pupils enrolled (Juuko and Kabonesa 2007). In some cases, due to lack of space, books are often kept in stores under lock which makes it impossible for pupils to access them (Bategeka and Okurut 2006). The most affected schools are known to be those in the rural and urban slums. Since lack of instructional materials affects both children and teachers, many teachers get discouraged by this situation and de-motivated to teach which lead to poor quality education and in turn, children drop out as a result of poor quality of education.

Children with Disabilities

One of the paramount motives in implementing UPE programme in Uganda was to make primary school education accessible to all and children with disabilities were encouraged to join the mainstream schools. Though this looks a good entry point to the disabled in accessing education and especially to those who had been stigmatized before UPE program, it appears that special arrangements for these children are missing (Ssekamwa, 1999). For example in UPE schools, children who are visually impaired lack white canes and Braille machine paper, children who are physically handicapped lack wheelchairs, crutches and other facilities that they may need depending on their level of disability. Children who are deaf have little or no access to skilled teachers in sign language and interpreters. Further impacting problem is lack of transport due to the costly maintenance of vehicles and daily transportation of children to school (ibid). In addition, lack of adequate knowledge and skilled teachers to handle children with traditional disabilities is a factor worthy considering as a strong case against the success of UPE in ensuring equality survival in school for these children.

Children in war zones

Implementation of UPE programme has had a lot of challenges in the Northern Uganda. For over two decades; this area has experienced a devastating civil war waged by the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) against the Government. This war did not only result into massive displacement of the entire population to camps, but seems to have been child-targeting and depriving their right of education. For example, the recent report of the abducted children amounts to about 26,662 (MoES 2007). UPE programme in practice has not taken into consideration the needs of children from this part of the country as there are few schools/classes within camps. The equality of survival in this situation has been extremely low to those who enroll and those who attempt to persist to continue the equality of output and outcome may not match their counterparts in safe areas due to moving up and down from one camp to another while saving their lives and looking for food (Tomasevki, 1999). In Bundibugyo the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) insurgency affected time for children to go to school and some of them dropped out of school because of this war in late 1990s.

Quality of Education

Under UPE, good quality of education is reflected on pupils’ ability to read, write and speak English (MOFPED) 2002: In order to improve the quality of primary education, the government has devoted some resources to procure some textbooks and construct some classrooms. The increase in education inputs explains the gradual improvement of some education quality indicators from the time UPE was introduced. Nevertheless, these improvements have not always translated into better outputs and outcomes of UPE programme education as evident in the results of a National Assessment of primary education Performance taken between 1996 and 2000, that education performance in terms of pupils’ numeric, reading, science, social studies knowledge and skills have deteriorated following the introduction of UPE programme (Bategeka and Okurut 2006). Some parents look at UPE with poor quality which makes it a sound reason for some of them to take their children to private schools. Some of the reasons behind poor quality education are for example automatic promotion policy that came with introduction of UPE as a way of minimizing Government expenditure. This has greatly undermined the quality and skills acquired by children as well as encouraging both pupils and parents to wrongly assume that what matters in order to gain promotion is to do exam and not necessary to pass (MOFPED 2002). This problem affects mostly poor children whose parents cannot afford coaching fees after common classes. During one of the interviews under automatic promotion process policy; this problem was emphasized as follows; UPE programme emphasizes promotion rather than efficiency. It is so bad that children in schools can neither read nor write their names yet they keep being promoted to higher classes. UPE programme  promotes failures, for example a child who scores 80 marks out of the 400 can take the 12^th position out of 600 pupils. These are all failures and yet they are promoted to the next class” (ibid). In this regard, UPE in practice ignores the factor concerning quality education, an issue that makes the rate of survival in school for poor children very low as they avoid wasting their time and money in school without gaining appropriate skills.

Through UPE programme, it is the responsibility of the Government to provide adequate and well trained teachers. It should also monitor their work as well as cater for their well being so as to motivate them for providing quality education (Bategeka and Okurut, 2006). However the analysis on teacher’s quality reveals that a large proportion of primary school teachers lack appropriate training. For example, in 2003, there were 145,703 primary school teachers, of whom 54,069 (37%) had no formal teacher training and only 7,960 had just a teaching certificate, obtained after training on completion of primary education. The majority of unqualified teachers are deployed in UPE rural schools (ibid: 5). With this, one can easily see the extent to which UPE in practice does not guarantee equality of output to children in rural and other disadvantaged areas as untrained  teachers are less likely to give low quality teaching, an issue that contributes to school dropout.

According to 2007 primary education assessment report made by the Dutch Operations evaluation Department, between 20% and 30% of teachers are absent from school at any given time with the main reasons for being delayed and low salaries, long distances from their homes to schools and inadequate supervision (MoES, 2007). In the same report, Joseph Eilor, found that absenteeism of teachers was highest in rural and northern parts of Uganda. As teachers dodge their work at school, pupils also dodge in response to their teacher, a factor that compromises the rate of their survival in school as most of them never come back as the proverb says that; “when the cat is away, the mice play all ever”, whenever teachers are absent, the pupils also skip schooling.

Punishments and harassment

Corporal punishments and harassment destabilize children and prevent them from completing their school. They do not lead to school dropout alone but also expose them to physical and psychological dangers. It is however sad to note that even after introduction of UPE programme, corporal punishments like heavy beating, digging ant-hills and slashing bushes still exist which compromise equality of survival for children in schools. This is just a sample of the incidents in UPE schools but the story is that corporal punishments threaten many children in schools which make them run away forever and never to return in school anymore.

Although sexual abuse and harassment is a crime and discouraged by law in Uganda, several reports in the press still show sexual abuse by male teachers on female students. This makes many young girls to get unwanted pregnancies and others get intimidated by their teachers, a reason that explain girls’ dropout more than boys (Kakuru, 2003).

Bandura (1973) studied and discovered that there is significant relationship between parents’ characteristics (both educational and occupational status) and the child’s attitude, values, feelings and guidance towards learning. This was indeed true because some parents particularly village parents were responsible for spoiling their children against regular attendances of school days, later on dropout of schools.

According to Durojaiye (1972), we must recognize the factors that are usually conditions of many African homes and everyday-living conditions as probably inadequate for our children to acquire large parts of their potentialities. The quotation implies that in our African setting, we had numerous problems that contribute to the poor performance of our children. For example lack of enough funds to manage our home problems like children’s education, health matters, feeding methods dressing and sleeping habits. Also these and many others caused a lot of imbalance in a child’s attitudes towards school life, hence making him/her for school life nothing but an academic prison. Finances might therefore be directed to boys at the expense of girls.

Durojaiye (1972) recommended that plans might exist for home-school contacts where parents get to know their children’s teachers for the effectiveness of their children. And this helped teachers to know more about the learner’s backgrounds and then discuss some learning problems where parents were able to help. The school’s major responsibility was to transmit knowledge to pupils; parents also must concern themselves with the work of the school and what are being taught to their children.

According to Fantana, (1981) poor living conditions and the un stimulating environment experienced by many lower socio-economic families may hinder the educational progress of children. Also such children said that they had no where at home to sit and read quietly or do their home work. And this led some children not to complete primary education.

Watson (2002) pointed out that children did not complete primary education due to some family reasons. Because of poor economic status of families, parents did not have much to support their children’s education. And the priority was given to boys and girls were made to leave school and began to do home activities all the time.

Fantana (1981) says that, success in learning a subject by pupils relates closely to the learner’s home background. He goes further to state that children of the white collar job and middle class parents have a greater chance of success while those of the blue collar jobs have the least. Children who exhibit a high level of motivation tend to come from higher socio-economic status families and perform better. Several studies, point out that socio-economic status is a significant independent variable that affects completion of primary level.

Mullar (1982), found out that, home background affects pupil’s completion of primary level in Uganda. He revealed that males from poor homes perform better than those from rich ones. The reason given was that the poor boy’s rough home life becomes a source of encouragement and inspiration to perform better for a bright future. Meanwhile, girls from good homes were found to perform better than those from poor ones. The reason here was that rich girls have less economic worries and therefore stabilize on books while poor girls waste time looking for money from men and consequently some e end up dropping out of school.

In times of diminished food resources, girls and their mothers are often last to be fed, resulting in a diet low in calories and protein. An estimated 450 million adult women in developing countries are stunted as a result of lack of childhood protein for energy.  Iodine and iron deficiencies have significant consequences for pregnant women and their off springs. The alarming increase is the number of girl’s infected with the HIV virus. Adolescent girls are at high risk of contracting HIV because their low social status often pressures them into situations where they are forced to have unprotected sexual intercourse with men. Girls are often treated as inferior to boys, both within the home and by society at large. They are socialized to put themselves last, which in turn undermines their self-esteem and their ability to reach their full potential as human beings. When a girl is prevented from going to school or is too exhausted to pay attention in class because of her work load at home, she is being denied her right to education. Girls carry the bulk of responsibility for the house work while boys study play or attend to their interests and hobbies, so girls are discriminated (Njeuma,:1993)

According to Odaet and Buye, (1997), domestic affairs effected girl’s completion of primary education because girls did a lot of work than boys in many societies because of culture. They get involved in food preparation, child care, grinding millet and so on. And this situation worsens as the girls grow older, and denied rights of getting enough time to rest and read their books for a better performance and later on does not complete primary education. They compared groups of successful and unsuccessful learners and found out that parental re-enforcement positively correlates with academic performance and achievement. Socially girls were believed to do much work like helping their mothers in home activities and this led them to have less time to concentrate on their studies compared to boys. And this affected their concentration and later on dislike of schooling.Mullar (1982).

The National Action Plan on women, (1999) shows that the low priority given to the girls education, their heavy domestic work load, demand for girl child labour have significant effect on the girl’s education. Since they bear the burden of additional household work and may be withdrawn from school altogether.

Njeuma, (1993) shows that sending girls to schools has high opportunity costs especially for rural parents who depend on girl’s domestic work. Education costs for girls (fees and uniforms tend to be higher than that of boys thus limiting their education). This is because most parents can afford sending a daughter to school in torn or ill fittings clothes. Bawn, (1985) found out that the curricular and most educational materials in schools were designed with interests of boys.

Attitudes parents show towards their children’s school can off set or reinforce in, saying, that if parents attitudes are negative, then the levels to reach will be lowered and vise versa.

2.3 STRATEGIES AIMED AT RETAINING PUPILS IN SCHOOL SO AS TO COMPLETE THE PRIMARY CYCLE

Poverty reduction,Njeru and Orodho,(2003). The two writers consent that the critical factors that are responsible for the low access and poor participation and retention in education is poverty.

High rates of poverty at household level have made poor households either not to enroll their children in primary schools or fail to sustain an uninterrupted participation of those who are enrolled due to inability to meet various requirements.

This has resulted in adequate provision of learning facilities to the enrolled, poor quality education and high dropout rates among the poor.

The above statement is supported by the UNESCO background paper which poses that poverty cannot be overcome without specific, immediate and sustained attention to enhancing access to education (UNESCO, 2002). Poverty is thus addressed in two avenues. First, inability to meet indirect costs for schooling, such costs are school learning and teaching materials, uniforms, transport to and from school and food Several studies done in Malawi, Ghana, Zambia, Ethiopia and Tanzania have shown that children are hindered form effective participation in schooling due to inability to afford such costs (Kelly, 2007).

In conformity with this situation, Mingat (2002) established that the richest households, 76 percent of their children attend school compared to 40% of the poorest households. This means that children from poor households have much lower attendance than those from richer households. UNESCO (2002) concurs with, Mingat that the level of the family income is one of the most powerful factor that influences primary school enrolments rates in the developing countries. (Onyango, 2000), showed that parental socio-economic background influences their children’s participation in education. This is especially so for the developing countries where children of the poor families are not provided with adequate educational materials and most are not apt to enroll in school if enrolled, they are more likely to drop out of school than children who are from better-off families.

Briggs, (1980) cited in Mbai (2004) contends that poor families may contemplate bearing the cost of sending their children to school but might abandon the whole exercise when more exercises are demanded.

A report carried out in contemporary economic policy magazine in January 2001 entitled “Determinants of school enrolment on performance in Bulgaria,” revealed that the role of the income among the poor and the rich is a major determinant for school access. Those poor families are constrained in their investment in education and withdraw from school prematurely.

Ending child labor,According to Mutegi (2005) conversation of the rights of the child defined a child as anyone below the age of 18. Child labor is destroying a generation of children. Children who start working when they are young never grow as they miss out on education. The Koech Commission TIQET (1999) also found that child labor is a rampant practice that continues to keep children out of school, especially in the prevailing situation of poverty at the household level. Children in different parts of the country are involved in activities such as fishing, picking of coffee, tea, Mira, hawking and petty trading. In addition many school age girls are employed as house girls and child menders in urban and rural areas. This habit contravenes the children’s rights as stated below “every child shall be protected from economic exploitation and any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with child’s education” (Children’s Act, 2001 pg. 153).

One of the most serious obstacles to school enrollment is child labor. Children who work tend to have erratic school attendance and poor concentration in class. For example, using household survey data from MOES (2011) found a link between child labor and reduced educational attainment, as measured by grade repetition. Guarcello et al. (2008) also identify child labor as a major obstacle to achieving universal primary education and other development goals.

Children from poor households are particularly vulnerable because the opportunity cost of schooling is substantially higher for them. Such children may have to work in the fields, grazing the family’s animals or protecting crops against predators. Both Psacharopoulos (2009) and Priva (2010) found that children from poor households who work contribute significantly to total household income. Priva argues that banning child labor could reduce the welfare of the households intending to send their children to school. .

TIQET (1999) thus concluded …All these forms of labour, whether paid, interfere with children’s participation in education, either denying them access and retention or hindering their effective participation, by causing dropout and absenteeism.

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Organization are working towards ending gender discrimination this is normally by non government organization and civil rights activist, according to burke et al, 2006 most NGO are ion the developing world trying to agitate for equality, Other factors that influence retention of pupils in school include the gender of the child. Burke and Beagle (2004) found that female parents may favor girls; in that the mother’s schooling is associated to a greater degree with a daughter’s attendance than a son’s attendance. A correlation has also been documented between low attendance at school and children from ethnic minorities, children who are disabled, and children in conflict or post-conflict regions.

Moreover, where these issues exist, they tend to exacerbate the gender differences.

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Reduction of Birth rates: Birth order also affects schooling. We may start with the premise that a large number of children in a household has negative causal effects on the quality of education. This is because given equal resources; parents with more children have fewer resources to commit per child than parents with fewer children. Park and Chung (2007) found a strong but negative causal relationship between sib ship size and education of the first-born and second-born children in rural Bangladesh. Using evidence from the Turkish Demographic and Health Survey, Kirdar et al. (2007) also concluded that birth order affects schooling, to the detriment of the middle children. They found this impact to be more pronounced in poor families, and they maintain that scarce financial resources are the underlying cause of this birth order effect.

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Creation of small and manageable sizes of families, According to West (1980) cited in Otunge (2004) large numbers of children in a family of limited income result in overcrowding in the home and this may in turn have a serious effect upon behavior. West further adds that parents in overcrowded accommodation cannot protect or supervise their young children as they might wish. According to Ruther (1980) cited in Otunge (2004) large family size is quite strongly associated with social disadvantage. The large family size limits the parental involvement in the academic welfare of each child. Thus leads to low participation of the child in school activities and may eventually lead to dropout

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Encouraging adult education so that they are taught the benefits iof eduction to the society, A study done by Ngau (1991) on grade repetition and school dropouts in Uganda primary schools reveals that parents level of education is important for children’s educational support. Peasant parents who are also poorly educated are disadvantaged. While these parents try to provide the best education to their children, the priority family goal is “survival” as the family does not even have proper and adequate medical care, food and shelter. Teenage children with educated mothers are less likely to become pregnant (Vila 2002).

According to Onyango (2000) better educated parents appreciate the value of education more than illiterate ones. In this case, educated parents  are able to assist their children progress in education both materially and morally hence retention of children in school

Education of children on the core values of society especially the language and the culture of a given society, Language and medium of instruction is another factor that influences access and retention. Learning using a foreign language or another ethnic group language which one is not familiar with is not easy especially in the early years of schooling. It demands one to learn the language before learning the content. The double task discourages one from catching up with schooling. As such pupils either perform poorly or repeat classes a practice that usually leads to drop outs

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Poor supervision and indiscipline

Poor supervision and indisciplinein schools has pushed many pupils to engaging in frustrating activities, such as smoking, drinking of alcohol, miraa chewing among others. It has been observed that teachers pass time in the staffroom chatting, gossiping or simply whiling away their time while classes remained untaught and the syllabus remain uncovered (UNICEF, 1998). The low performance of students eventually means that education does not fetch enough benefits as an investment; parents get demoralized and see education as a waste of time and the resources that could be invested elsewhere.

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 Attitudes:

Parkinson (1976) defined attitudes as either mental readiness or implicit predispositions that exert some general and consistent influence on a fairly large class of evaluative responses. Altitudes are reinforced by beliefs and often lead to particular forms of behavior. Thus we can infer that our perceptions and our value system are shaped by our altitudes which start at a very early stage after birth. Dorothy (1947) suggested that at birth a child is exposed to the values and practices of the human group very early in life, and that one becomes a cultural being by learning the ways of his people.

Attitudes and practices have a big influence on education. It is the culture and attitudes that mould the society, and determines the way of life According to the 1995, primary census MOEST (1998) the commonest reason for dropping out of school is lack of interest on the part of parents owing to their own illiteracy.

Government increased fight against HIV/AIDS, Education, in addition to being a goal in itself, is a powerful driver of progress toward the other MDGs (Bruns et al. 2003). Research indicates that education for boys and girls is an effective preventive weapon against HIV/AIDS. Better education also contributes to natural resource management, including preservation of tropical rain forests (UN Millennium Project2005). However, Bruns et al. note that most of the positive externalities associated with primary education require that children complete at least seven years of schooling.

HIV/AIDS is slowing down the growth of the school aged population; this has lowered enrolment in primary schools. Dropout rates have been accelerated by effects originating from the deadly disease (Kasonde-Ngandu, 2013). Parents show discrimination to send children to school because little is occurring, teachers are frequently absent, few learning materials are available and employment prospects are slender. Parents also choose not to send their infected children to school urging that they will die young before they have been able to garner any economic returns for what was spent on their education UNESCO, (2002).

Campaigning against early pregnancy, Teenage pregnancy is another major factor influencing retention of girls in primary schools. When pupils get pregnant in school, they have to go and stay at home until they give birth. The return of such pupils will depend on family support and the ability to maintain both the child and their daughter. All things being equal, there are few poor families which are in a position to take on the double responsibility and so, the majority of the girls who get pregnant do not return to school (Ngau, 2007)

Repetition according to researchers; Ngau (2007) and Theuri (2004) has negative psychological effects on pupils because it tends to lower pupil’s self-esteem and damage peer relations. Hence it has been cited as a major cause of school dropout. Refuting the views of its proponents who see it as an appropriate investment in pupil recovery since as it argued children do not all acquire knowledge and/ or attitudes at the same rate.

Residence: Children living in rural areas are less likely to attend school because the distances are greater, the facilities are poorer, and the need for child labor is greater. In particular, younger children are affected by the distance to school since they are less able to walk sizable distances. . Number of schools are highly dispersed this  force children to traverse difficult terrain and lack of transport makes access to schools more difficult for primary pupils.

Moreover, poorer households are more likely to be rural than urban (Filmer and Pritchett

1998). Poor households spend more proportionately on education than do the rich (Kadzimira and Rose 2003), which means that they have less money to spend on other household necessities like food and medical bills

Peer group influence:

Fobih (1987) in a study in Ghana found that peer group exerts considerable influence on the adolescent by setting a pattern of values and behaviors for the individuals. In the greater Accra region of Ghana, peer group was found to have influenced members to drop out of school to join such activities as going to the beach and lorry parks (i.e. bus or train stations) to work as carriers of baggage or packages during school hours. Fobin (1987) also found that having early sexual relations is a vital factor associated with drop out among adolescent situations

2.4 VARIOUS SOCIAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PUPIL RETENTION

Influence of gender equality, Dialogue to develop partnerships on gender equality is needed when agencies are developing country assistance strategies, and also at the activity level during design and implementation. This means that development workers need to talk with partners about how women’s needs, benefits and rights are relevant to the development activities being planned and implemented, taking into account the social, economic and political context; and how equal benefits will increase the effectiveness of activities and the sustainability of outcomes. Ideally, this dialogue and negotiation will result in agreement on investments and activities, with a clear understanding of how benefits for both women and men will be realized, Successful partnerships leads to, a shared vision,  stakeholder involvement, long-term commitments,  attention to partner capacity (World Bank 2001).

Develop a shared vision and explicit consensus on gender equality objectives, relevant to the country strategy or development activity. Evaluations show that lack of ownership of gender equality goals and strategies is a key obstacle to addressing gender issues in development activities. Most countries in the developing world were gender inequality is prevalent they lack a shared vision so if they have a shared vision it will be imperative for them ensure gender equality, Ownership of objectives and approaches is more likely to be shared if there is a clear link to policies and commitments that the partner has already made on equality for women. (Keller et al, 2001).

Effective strategies for activity design, implementation and monitoring, There is very clear evidence that attention to gender issues in activity design and implementation is essential if agencies want to increase the likelihood that both women and men will participate and benefit, and to ensure that they are not disadvantaged by development activities which among many may include universal education and access to medical care. Even very limited attention to gender issues in design can make a significant difference to whether women benefit, although local context is critical for sustaining benefits and for making progress towards gender equality. Implementation and monitoring of women programs is necessary for the effectiveness of the women programs since most of the programs tend to end on papers but are not implemented especially in the developing countries, (USAID, 2001).

Incorporate gender equality objectives into activity, programme or project objectives. This is often noted as a key reason for success when evaluators find positive benefits and impacts for women. This does not mean that activities need to focus exclusively on women or on achieving equality. Gender equality issues are given more systematic and serious attention if they are reflected in the design objectives. This increases the likelihood that attention to gender equality will flow through into strategies, activities and indicators for monitoring and evaluation. Most of these gender equality programs include access to medial facilities government (Sida 2000)

Involving both men and women in the decision making process to ensure that each parties interest is represented.Participatory strategies need to be informed by sound analysis of gender relations, socio-economic and political context, this helps in equal representation of both parties interest and ensure that each parties is respected this helps women to make quality de The review found evidence that participatory strategies by themselves do not guarantee that gender equality will be adequately addressed, since participatory methods still often overlook women’s perspectives (Aus AID 2000).

Support of women organizations.Activities which have been specifically designed to promote gender equality, by strengthening local women’s organizations to set and carry out their own agenda for equality, show the strongest evidence of strategic and sustainable changes in gender relations. Effective strategies include support for women’s analytical, networking and organizational capacity, and support for women’s advocacy activities with men in local political and social institutions. Accountability of government agencies to civil society is critical for making progress towards gender equality. Frequently, local women’s organizations have limited capacity to influence development priorities, and need to be resourced to fulfill this role, (World Bank 2002).

Relationship between men and women, Sensitization of men (including husbands and male leaders) is critical for securing increased participation by women in many contexts. Dialogue and involvement of men is also essential to achieve sustainable benefits for women and changes in gender relations, in some projects, using female staff, extension agents and women’s group helps to target women effectively, to facilitate women’s participation, and to ensure that they have access to programme and project resources. However, the content of targeted programmes is just as important as the strategy of targeting. It is essential to analyze the constraints which prevent women from accessing resources and benefits, develop strategies to target women more effectively, and monitor the effectiveness of targeting strategies. (Jones et al 2010).

The quality of gender analysis needs to be improved, by linking it coherently with activity objectives, social and poverty analysis, and expected results. When gender analysis is undertaken during design process of gender equality, it is often not linked in any meaningful way to the activities to be implemented, or to the expected results. A failure to integrate gender analysis with overall social, poverty and sustainability analysis increases the likelihood that women will be marginalized during design and implementation. Integrated social, gender and poverty analysis needs to identify: the different vulnerabilities of females and males to becoming poor (such as differences in access to employment, productive resources, education, and lack of decision-making power over life choices); the different experiences of males and females living in poverty (such as in access to basic services, legal redress, and vulnerability to violence, illness and various forms of exploitation); the different options which females and males have to escape poverty, and their priorities; and, different impacts of poverty reduction interventions on males and females. (Huddleston, 2000).

Speaking of different language from that at school, Might play in dropping out (Lynch, 2001; Jackson, 2000). Specifically, when students are taught (especially in the earlier years) in languages which are not their native tongue, this can be particularly exclusionary. Jackson (2000) describes repetition rates increasing for children in Burundi (up from 28% to 40%) in the first two years of using French as the language of instruction. Kane (2004) uses the example of Moroccan Berber children who are taught in a classical Arabic not in daily use (as well as French), but is only able to speculate on the connection between this and high dropout rates. Research from Paraguay (Patrinos & Psacharopoulos, 1995) based on a 1990 household survey of children aged 12-19, indicates that ‘language strongly influences school attainment and performance’. In this sample children who speak only Guarani at home have equal access to schooling, but their performance in school (in terms of years of attainment and grade repetition), is considerably inferior to that of Spanish-only and bilingual pupils. It goes on to suggest that, ‘language influences school performance and is highly correlated with poverty, leading to dropout and low earnings’ (Patrinos& Psacharopoulos, 1995: 58). Here language was the ‘single best predictor’ of repetition and the ‘cost’ of being a Guarani-only speaker is about one year of schooling attainment.

Bilingual education is often seen as one means of improving the educational attainment of children prone to educational exclusions as a result of dropping out, in developing countries. Enge and Chesterfield (1996) in particular notes how bilingual programmes have been partly effective in increasing retention and decreasing dropouts of indigenous groups in Guatemala. Yet, it is difficult to attribute this to the bilingual effect, given schools also received teacher training inputs and increased instructional materials.

Gender:

Gender perception, As highlighted throughout this review, gender cuts across a wide range of constraints that lead to drop out. This section focuses on the gendered aspects of dropping outwit an emphasis on demand-side factors in particular e.g. household contexts, gendered cultural practices etc. (gendered schooling practices and supply side issues are covered more in section 2.6.3). While the emphasis in studies of gender and access tends to be around the education of girls and enabling the retention of girls in school, in some contexts it is boys who are more likely to withdraw early (e.g. South Africa, Jamaica). Often this takes place in communities where initial access is largely equal for both genders, and the move out of school for boys is often seen as a pull to the labour market (see section Colclough et al (2000) talk about gendered cultural practices which influence girls and boys educational chances and experiences. They describe, for example, gendered roles in society which shape, ‘the balance of incentives for girls and boys to attend school’ (2000: 4). For example, in some societies the main leadership roles in public life are taken by men, which could potentially restrict the aspirations of girls; marriage of girls happens at a younger age than boys, limiting the likelihood of continued schooling; and labour market practices can influence both male and female withdrawals differently. Whilst not always the case (see previous paragraph), in many societies there remain fewer accepted incentives for girls to continue schooling, which can provide a push towards early withdrawal.

Thus while the gendered nature of access is context specific, it often reflects societal perceptions of gendered roles and the role education can play in affirming this. Gendered practices at the household level affect the opportunities of girls and boys to access and complete education. In household decision making processes around educational access, trade-offs between children are made. Studies indicate the preference many households have for the education of boys over girls, with girls ‘education often deemed less important and drop out consequently more likely (e.g.Admassie, 2003; Boyle et al, 2002; Kobiané, 2002; Odaga and Heneveld, 1995 in Nekatibeb, 2002; Rose & Al Samarrai, 2001). For example, the gendered division of labour within households often sees girls taking on household duties and child care duties which take them out of school (see section 2.1.3).

The nature of marriage, where girls move into the husband’s household, thus bringing fewer perceived benefits to their households, also restricts the perceived need for continued schooling. Perceptions of the value of girls’ education differed from those of boys’. Boyle et al1(2002: 46) suggest that households in their study tended to see boys’ education bringing greater future economic rewards, which was not to be the case with girls(whose futures were expected to be lie in family care and marriage).Research studies give examples of gendered household practices and convictions which appear to influence schooling retention.

Parental cultures,Colclough et al (2000) describe how some parents in Ethiopia claimed that twelve years of schooling would mean their daughters could not perform housework and as a result may not be able to find husbands. Similarly, in Guinea parents mentioned that primary schooling was irrelevant to girls’ future roles. Both indicated a lack of motivation towards the continued schooling of girls. In addition, an ILO/IPEC (2004: 19) study highlights the propensity for girls to be excluded or withdrawn from school earlier than boys, ‘in the belief that, as a girl, she does not need to be educated or indeed should not be too educated in case it blights her marriage potential’. Indeed, educating a girl is often seen as a poor investment because the girl will marry and leave home, bringing the benefits of education to the husband’s family rather than to her own. This is not the same for all girls. In Glick and Sahn’s (2000) study (using data from a survey of 1725 households conducted in Conakry, Guinea in 1990), a number of factors appeared to influence the increased retention of girls in the education system .These included: more years of schooling for both mothers and fathers; household permanent income and expenditure; and an increase in female siblings aged 13-20years (however, an increase in the number of children in the household, under the age of five, had a negative effect on girls access and a positive influence on dropping out).Boys’ educational retention was not affected in the same way.

Research studies give examples of gendered household practices and convictions which appear to influence schooling retention. Colclough et al (2000) describe how some parents in Ethiopia claimed that twelve years of schooling would mean their daughters could not perform housework and as a result may not be able to find husbands. Similarly, in Guinea parents mentioned that primary schooling was irrelevant to girls’ future roles. Both indicated a lack of motivation towards the continued schooling of girls. In addition, an ILO/IPEC (2004: 19) study highlights the propensity for girls to be excluded or withdrawn from school earlier than boys, ‘in the belief that, as a girl, she does not need to be educated or indeed should not be too educated in case it blights her marriage potential’. Indeed, educating a girl is often seen as a poor investment because the girl will marry and leave home, bringing the benefits of education to the husband’s family rather than to her own

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0       INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the methodology which consists of the research design, area of study, study population, sample population and selection, sampling technique, data collection method, data quality control, data collection procedures and limitations of the study.

3.1 Research design

A blend of qualitative and quantitative research design with a mix of methodology of both approaches will be employed to find out the social factors influencing retention of pupils at Harugale sub-county.

Qualitative approach: this approach gathers information based on an in depth understanding of human behaviour and the resources that govern the behaviour depending on the why and how of decisions making based on theoretical analysis and assumptions of the respondents.

This will be used because of theoretical analysis and assumption of the respondents.

This will be used because it deals with smaller population and it puts emphasis on uncovering more about people’s experiences.

This will be done by questioning and finding out about peoples views.

Quantitative approach: this is the approach that deals with numerical expression in figures in terms of quantity which involves measurement of quantity and amounts.

However quantitative approach will be used because of the following reasons; this approach eliminates behavioral biases were by the behavioral beliefs are done away with, the approach leads to accuracy were by results are not guessed, operational risks are reduced. This approach will be used in away of getting actual figures and taking on calculations then getting answers.

3.2       Area of the study

The study will be carried out at Harugale sub-county Bundibugyo district.

The study will be carried out in budibugyo district, in western Uganda. It will cover Bundibudgyo district head quarters, Bundibugyo town council and Harugale sub-county. Bundibugyo district will be selected because of the high levels of drop out before finishing primary school, (MOES, 2013).

3.2       Study Population and Sample Size

The study will target business men, administrators, farmers, teachers, and farmers.

  Table: Sample size of the respondents

Source: Primary data

3.3       SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

According to (Amin, 2005) sampling involves selecting a sample of the population in such a way that samples of the same size have equal chances of being selected.

The respondents will be selected using purposive sampling techniques. Berg (2006) purposive sampling, the researcher chooses the sample based on where they think would be appropriate for the study. A Purposive sampling technique will be used because it’s cheap.

3.4 DATA SOURCES

Source of data will be from both primary and secondary sources.

• Primary data

Primary data will be obtained from the questionnaires administered on the target respondents to gain opinions and practices on impacts of technological advancement on the performance of secretaries at Uganda communications commission.

• Secondary sources

Secondary data is data which has been collected by individuals or agencies for purposes other than those of a particular research study. It is data developed for some purpose other than for helping to solve the research problem at hand (Bell, 1997). This will comprise of literature related to Social factors influencing retention of pupils in UPE schools in relation to the case study. Secondary data will be sourced because it yields more accurate information than obtained through primary data, and it is also cheaper

3.5 Data Collection methods and instruments

The major instruments for data collection will be questionnaires and interview guide. Surveys will be just one part of a complete data collection and evaluation strategy. The major method of data collection for the study will be the survey, which will be done using selected instruments like questionnaires. The questionnaire will provide respondents with ample time to comprehend the questions raised and hence, they will be able to answer factually.

3.5.1 Questionnaires

The questionnaire will be used to collect quantitative data. The researcher will administer the questionnaires to different respondents in business, administration, teaching, and farmers, which will be designed basing on study objectives and questions. Respondents will read and write the questionnaires themselves. The questionnaires will be close ended and will be considered convenient because they will be administered to the literate and its anonymous nature will fetch unhindered responses.

3.5.2 Interviews

Qualitative data will be collected from the informants using interviews. The interview guide will be structured. The interviews will be held with administration and business men, and will take approximately thirty to sixty minutes. This will be used since it’s the best tool for getting first-hand information /views, perceptions, feelings and attitudes of respondents. Both formal and informal interviews will be used to get maximum information from the different respondents to participate in the research.

3.6 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

The instrument will be taken to the supervisor to check its correctness there after pretesting study will be carried out to find out if it measures what it is meant to for.

3.7 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

The raw data will be coded, edited, and arranged ready for analyzing only completed raw data will be analyzed using statistical tables and graphs.

3.8 ANTICIPATED LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Financial constraint, cash flow may not flow as   expected but this will not affect the study. Respondents may delay in filling the questionnaire and fear to give information, but they will be persuaded that the information will be kept secret.

APPENDIX QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS AND SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS

Dear respondent,

I am AJULONGCAROLINE a student of Kyambogo University carrying out research on thefactors that influence retention of pupils in UPE School. You are one of the respondents randomly selected and kindly requested to participate in the study. The information given shall be treated with at most confidentiality and shall only be used strictly for academic purpose.

SECTION A:  GENERAL DATA (Tick one appropriate).

1. What is your occupation?

School administrator                        Teacher                   parent

student                            others

• Sex: Male          Female

• Age a) 18 -29 b) 30 – 39 c)  40 and above

4. Educational level

Certificate                               Diploma                      Degree             Others

5. For how long have you been teaching at Harugaale SchoolSub County?

Less than one year                                     1-4 years

4-10 years                                                  above 10years

6. Have you seen a student dropping out of school?

Yes                                  No

7. If yes how frequent does it happen?

Less frequent

Frequently

SECTION B: FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PUPIL RETENTION           

6) Does your school experience students dropping out of school?

Yes                       No                            Not sure

7) If yes, what causes the drop out?

Poverty

Poor academic grades

Personal interest

Others

13) Using SA=strongly agree, A=agree, N=neutral, D=disagree, SD=strongly disagree,indicate your level of agreement or disagreement with the causes of drop out below;

SECTION C: STRATEGIES AIMED AT RETAINING PUPILS IN SCHOOLS.

Does Harugale sub-county work towards retention of children?

Yes                           No                          Not sure

If yes in what ways does it work towards ensuring retention of children?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Please tick one appropriate

Using SA= strongly agree, A= agree, N= neutral, D=disagree, SD= strongly disagree

Please mention other factors that influence retention of children in schools?

1. …………………………………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………………………………

• …………………………………………………………………………………………

1. …………………………………………………………………………………………

SECTION D: SOCIAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PUPIL RETENTION IN PRIMARY SCHOOL

(Please tick one appropriate.)

Does your society believe in children going to school?

Yes                                            No                           Not sure

Does your society encourage children going to school?

Yes                                            No                           Not sure

Using SA=strongly agree, A=agree, N=neutral, D=disagree, SD=strongly disagree indicate by ticking, the following are the social factors that influence pupil retention in primary schools. (Can tick more than one).

THANKS FOR YOUR COOPERATION

Pupils interview guide

What is your name?

How old are you?

How many children are you in your family?

What do you do in the morning before coming to school?

Why do you come to school?

Has any child in your class left schooling?

What were the reasons for leaving?

What work does your father do?

Do you have a friend?

Does that friend encourage you to go to school?

How far is your school from home?

Do you know the other reasons why children live schooling?