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FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE INCREASED RATE OF CHILD LABOUR AMONG FAMILIES IN KIRA MUNICIPALITY, WAKISO DISTRICT
ABSTRACT
The main purpose of this study was to investigate the factors for the increased rate of child labour among families in Kira municipality, Wakiso district. The specific study objectives were: to identify various forms of child labour among families: to establish the reasons for the increased rate of child labour among families: and to assess the impact of child labour. A cross sectional survey research design, combined with qualitative methods was used for this study. The study population included children aged between 8-15 years, local residents (parents and other adults), local leaders and police officers who made a sample size of 22 respondents.
The study revealed that child labour was on the rise in Kira municipality, due to many factors like poverty and economic hardships in families; high population growth and large families, rural agricultural dominance which is labour intensive: illiteracy and ignorance on child labour, urbanization, HIV/AIDS, child neglect, domestic violence, social, cultural and religious factors and weak national labour laws. It manifested in form of agricultural farm labour, child soldiers, smuggling, drug trafficking, urban informal sector employment, self-employment, commercial sex. domestic child workers, and child trafficking. The victims of child labour were orphans, the girl-child, children living with relatives or biological parents, school chop outs, delinquents, adopted and abandoned children. The key perpetrators of child labour included biological parents, business men and traders, relatives, factories and plantation farms, schools, and rebel groups. The effects of child labour included physical harm; health hazards; low education levels and school drop-outs; high child mortality rates; psychological torture; children’s negative attitude and dislike in adulthood: sexual abuse and moral decline; family breakdowns, and poverty.
The study therefore recommended that government, local leaders, and NGOs need to take measures to empower children as one way of curbing child labour. When empowered with knowledge and information on child labour and their rights, children can aid in the fight by identifying the forms of child labour they are subjected to and effectively reporting such cases to relevant authorities for action.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
The main purpose of this study was to investigate the factors for the increased rate of child labour among families in Kira municipality, Wakiso district. This chapter presents the background to the study, statement of the problem, purpose and specific objectives of the study, research questions, scope and significance of the study, and anticipated limitations.
Background of the Study
The Constitution of Uganda (1995) defines a child as any person below the age of 18 years. IA1CEF (2011) defines a child as “every human being below the age of eighteen years unless, under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.” Andvig (2001), notes that childhood is the most innocent stage in human life where a child is free from all tensions, fun-loving, plays and learns new things, and is loved by all family members. But this is only one side of the story. The other side is full of burdens where, the child is an earning machine working the entire day to satisfy family needs. This is called ‘child labour’ a persistent practice that represents one of the worst forms of child exploitation. It damages a child’s physical and mental health and deprives him of his basic rights to education, development and freedom.
According to Guluma (2008), labour refers to the physical or mental effort directed towards the production of goods and services. It can be skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled; while child work refers to activities or work done by children which is non-hazardous, within their ability in their families like cooking done at home under close observation and supervision of elder family members (parents/guardians), in an environment free from harassment or exploitation. UYDEL (2009) refers to child labour as work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally harmful to children; while child rights are the needs any child must be provided with to ensure that the child grows up healthy, happy and useful both to himself, family and society. A family is the smallest basic unit of society, composed of a group of people who are closely related to each other. It can be nuclear, or extended consisting of children and adults
The Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development (MOGLSD) (2004) notes that child labour is one of the main sources of child abuse, exploitation and a potential threat to the health, safety, moral and psychological development of children. By 2003, out of 7.9 million children in
Uganda aged between 5-17 years, 2.7 children were involved in child labour-majorly attributed to increased household poverty, weak national laws, domestic violence and a growing urban informal sector where children are engaged in street trading, prostitution, mechanics, washing cars, and restaurant activities. The children are exposed to health risks, HIV/AIDS and early pregnancies.
Child labour is damaging to the educational, physiological, and psychological development of the child. The practice still prevails in most Least Developed Countries (LDCs) in Africa, South-East Asia, and Latin America. It has health implications to the child as it increases the child’s exposure to health hazards that may subject the child to illness or injury; exposure to sexual harassment, torture, harassment and exploitation by employers, employees, and clients and these effects stretch from micro to macro levels. (Mbakogu, 2004).
Globally, 215 million boys and girls are engaged in child labour; with the incidence among children of 5-14 years at 13.7%. Of these, 115 million are involved in work that is considered unacceptable for children, like trafficking children into debt bondage, serfdom; forced labour, recruitment into armed conflict, commercial sexual exploitation, and trafficking drugs. Rescuing these children and offering them a future without child labour is an urgent priority, (llahi, Arazem and Sedlack, 2005). Internationally, child labour has been identified as an obstacle to realization of child rights, national development and attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), particularly those related to poverty alleviation, education, gender equality and HIV/AIDS.
The International Labour Organization (ILO) and International Programme for Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC, 2007), child labour is a widespread and growing phenomenon in LDCs. By 2006, the global prevalence of child labour was 250 million; 61 % in Asia, 32% in Africa and 7% in Latin America. The state of children toiling long hours under dehumanizing conditions, has precipitated an intensive debate concerning appropriate conditions and thresholds to child work. It is associated with poverty, low education: gender bias and health risks. Most victims begin working at a very young age, are malnourished, work long hours in hazardous occupations; do not go to school, get low or no wages; and their income used for family survival.
According to Mugume (2008), child labour is a complex problem in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and remains significant and critical due to the unique socioeconomic, cultural and developmental circumstances, frequent natural disasters and conflicts, and famine and hunger in Africa. It is often equated with child abuse and seen as a product of avaricious entrepreneurs seeking cheap labour and selfish parents. Child labour is rooted deeply in cultural, social and economic structures; reflecting the problem of poverty where parents send the children to work for survival.
Child labour is abusive and characterised by low wages, long hours of work under unsafe and unhealthy conditions, and lack of physical and social security. Victims are denied freedom, education, fun, play and natural development. Child labour is a disinvestment in human capital formation and has detrimental effect on the private and social returns from investment in education and health. That is why most countries including Uganda have outlawed child labour but this might not be sufficient since most victims are in the informal sector, (Lubandi, 2008). Thus, if poverty is the root cause for child labour, it suggests that legislation alone can’t solve the problem. It requires understanding demand and supply side forces leading to high incidence of child labour.
According to United Nations Children Education Fund (UNICEF) (2011), child labour remains one of the most provocative and controversial challenges facing the world. Globally, there are over 2.2 billion children; millions are vulnerable to exploitation, abuse, violence, discrimination and stigmatization. In most LDCs, millions of children fend for themselves or to support their families, instead of focusing on learning and playing. Over 2 million children are sexually exploited and 1.2 million are trafficked annually since they are poor; lack access to safe drinking water, vaccines, education and nutrition; are at risk of being exploited and abused. In 2002, the United Nations (UN) held a special session on children and led to an international agreement to protect and promote children’s rights, called “A World Fit for Children” in line with MDGs.
The Community Empowerment for Elimination of Child Labour (COMEECA) (2011), notes that children work in subsistence and commercial farming; fetch water over long distances; handle heavy loads; and are exposed to dust, pesticides and herbicides. In enterprises involved in tea, coffee, sugar, and tobacco production, children make up almost 80% of the employers, tasked to harvest crops; weed; slash; spray; and sorting produce. Some of the worst forms of child labour in the country include heavy domestic work; commercial sex and sexual slavery; involvement in military operations; smuggling of merchandise across borders; and the work of street children.
According to Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) (2012), Uganda’s population is estimated to be over 33 million, and 9.3% of these children are aged below 15 years. Amidst poverty, children suffer the biggest brunt and are the most vulnerable groups of the population. This exploitation denies children their basic right to education which is so crucial in their growing years. Most children work in the informal sector, without legal or regulatory protection. There are 70% working children in agricultural production, commercial hunting and fishing/forestry, there are 8% in manufacturing and 7% in community, social and personal service such as domestic work.
Kira municipality is located in Wakiso District in central part of Uganda. The area is urban in nature. It is also rich in numerous cultural practices including those that relate to the family. Specifically, child upbringing is a valued role of the elders-biological parents, elder brothers and sisters, close relatives, and the community at large. Evidently, child labour exists in the Sub-County as children are often engaged in laborious activities like domestic work such as cooking; farming, market vending, and casual jobs in bars, restaurants, and other private businesses in the area. This situation is perpetuated by the fact that Kira municipality is located near Kampala, the Capital city of Uganda where there is booming trade within the region. This rendered it suitable for the study, with many labour-demanding activities to reconstruct the region, right from the family level.
Statement of the Problem
A family is indisputably recognized as the basic unit of society, charged with the responsibility of caring, loving, providing and protecting its members, (Kabasiita. 2009). A child is the most delicate member in family and should grow into a responsible adult with the help of adults. Due to their vulnerability, children need family protection to curb potential and actual exposure to abuse. However, as it has turned out to be, children, despite their evident innocence and vulnerability, are the major victims of abuse, oppression and exploitation, right from their own families.
Globally, child labour has been held as one of the most prominent and common forms of abuse to which children are exposed at family, community and national levels. In Uganda, many family-related laws like the employment act, the child protection law that has a special enforcement unit in the police force have been enacted to ensure safety of children. However, this is not enough because child labour is prominent with most of them engaging in activities deemed unhealthy like heavy domestic work, commercial sex and drug trafficking. The government and other stakeholders have taken numerous steps like sensitization on the social media, execution of culprit who offend children, to address the problem, yet the result is still far from realization. Even with known effects on the child, family, community and economy, like harm, psychological disorders, school drop outs, moral decay and loss of human capital, the vice is instead on the rise, as though its effects are
Objectives of the Study
General Objective
The general objective of the study is to examine the factors for the increased rate of child labour among families in Kira municipality, Wakiso District
Specific Objectives
- To identify the various forms of child labour among families in Kira municipality.
- To establish the reasons for the increased child labour among families in Kira municipality.
- To assess the impact of child labour among families in Kira municipality.
- To investigate the interventional strategies to mitigate child labour among families in Kira municipality.
Research Questions,
- What are the various forms of child labour among families in Kira municipality?
- What are the reasons for the increased child labour among families in Kira municipality?
- What are the effects of child labour among families in Kira municipality?
- What interventional strategies have been put up to mitigate child labour among families in Kira municipality.
Scope of the Study
This study will examine the factors for the increased rate of child labour among families. The study will be conducted in Kira municipality, Wakiso District in central Uganda. The study will cover the period of five years from 2000-2015 due to the researcher’s desire to obtain more current information about the topic of study.
Significance of the Study
The local community of Kira municipality among whom the study will be conducted will get to know the forms, causes, effects and measures to curb child labour in their community.
The study will enhance the researcher’s knowledge and understanding of the concept of child in its forms, its causes; effects on the victims, society and economy and remedial measures.
The findings of the study will add to the existing body of knowledge that will act as source of reference for future researchers who will carry out studies in the related field.
To the civil society and NGOs, the study will expose forms of child labour, its causes and effects so that they can engage the society and government in tackling the vice.
To law enforcers like police,- law courts and local councils, the study will empower them with information on child labour so that they can to better enforce existing laws to address the vice.
To the government, the study will expose the key factors accounting for persistent child labour and the effectiveness of the current laws so that the existing policy gaps can be addressed.
Anticipated Limitations
Obtaining accurate, objective and more especially information considered sensitive from the target respondents might seem quite problematic. The researcher will attempt to overcome this challenge by providing adequate assurance to them that data required purely is for academic purposes.
The study may involve costs such as transport to and from the field communication, stationery, and printing of the research work.
The time factor may not another anticipated challenge since the study requires a lot of time to be conducted.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
This chapter presents a review of related literature by identification, selection and extensive study of existing information from credible sources, like studies on child labour by Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and individuals, and government reports to contextualize the study. The review of literature cites authentic sources, exposing the existing gaps that this Study will address. It will be based on study objectives to answer research questions as follows: To identify the various forms of child labour among families Kira municipality; To establish the reasons for the increased child labour among families in Kira municipality; To assess the effects of child labour among and To investigate the interventional strategies to mitigate child labour among families.
The Concept of Child Labour
According to MOGLSD (2004), child labour refers to work that is mentally, physically, or morally harmful to children; it can negatively affect their mental, physical, or social development and interferes with their schooling; by depriving them of the opportunity to attend school; by obliging them to leave school prematurely or combining school with work. Fetuga, Njokama and Olowu (2005), note that child labour is heavy work that harms and exploits children of school going age. It takes forms, like agriculture, domestic work, prostitution, smuggling, informal sector and fishing due to HIV/AIDS, poverty, vulnerability of children, weak education sector and traditions.
According to Emerson and Souza (2006), child labour is a form of child exploitation and covers any work-paid or unpaid, which by its nature or conditions is detrimental to their physical, mental, moral, social or emotional development, done in combination with schooling or not. Lubandi (2008) notes that, it threatens health, safety, physical growth, moral development and education of children. It includes use of dangerous tools, exposure to dangerous chemicals, heavy workloads and sexual abuse. ILO (2011) points agriculture activities like tobacco growing; animal traction, fishing, sand mining, stone querying, herding, petty trade, domestic workers, children in hotels and bars, child soldiers, slavery, prostitution, debt bondage and drug trafficking as its worst forms.
Major Victims and Perpetrators of Child Labour
According to Kantor and Hazyainova (2008), biological parents are the major actors in child labour due to poverty where children are used for economic gains in the family. Adult family members like brothers and uncles foster parents, guardians, family friends and relatives subject children to harsh labour. The Uganda Youth Development Link (UYDEL) (2009) apportions the blame on the community that perpetrates child labour directly and indirectly by exhibiting less concern about the vice. Local leaders and law enforcers who fail to condemn and prosecute the promoters of child labour in their communities indirectly accelerate the vice. Nalule (2011), notes that profit-oriented business men employ cheap (child) labour in their factories, shops, hotels and farms; just as the government, with its weak policy framework on labour.
UYDEL (2009) and COMEECA (2011) agree that children who are vulnerable to child labour are: those aged 5-12 years (over 80% of victims in Uganda): children with a past history of abuse like sexual harassment: children with learning disabilities, speech or mental disorders; children with congenital anomalies (malformations) and chronic/recurrent conditions; orphans, abandoned or neglected children; children living with relatives: children with illiterate and poor parents; the girl child; children in rural agricultural based settings and adopted and foster children.
FORMS OF CHILD LABOUR IN UGANDA
Domestic Child Workers (DCWs) or Servants; according to Ambadaker el al (1999), DCW is an invisible form of child labour which is most prevalent in high status urban households, but most DCWs come from rural areas. Canagarajah and Nielsen (1999) note that many children, especially girls, work in domestic service, sometimes starting as young as 5-6. They are involved in cooking, baby-sitting; household chores, fetching water or looking after animals. Their terms and conditions of service are not clearly defined and paid in kind-in form of food or shelter. UYDEL (2009), note that 90% of DCWs in Uganda are girls aged 12-17 years with demeaning working conditions; some working for more than 14 hours a day. According to Kabasiita (2009), DCWs are prone to sexual and verbal abuse, beatings, isolation and detached from families, and face the risk of contracting HIV/AIDS from their employers through frequent sexual abuse, especially defilement.
Forced or Bonded Child Labour; as noted by Cigno, Rosati and Tzannatos (2001). this form of child is the most exploitative. It is defined as a long-term relationship between the employer and cemented by a loan, custom or force and denies the employee various freedoms like choice to negotiate terms of work. A child works against repayment of a loan taken by his father who is unable to pay it. They work to pay the loan, and are common in rural areas with semi-feudalism. Chaubey et al (2007) agrees that it includes children whose parents have pledged them as payment or collateral (debt bondage), child prostitutes, child soldiers, DCWs, slaves and trafficked children. They are paid meagre wages which when coupled with usurious rates makes it impossible to repay the debt. The debt may increase as employers deduct payment for equipment and tools or fines for faulty work.
Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children (CSEC); this is the use of children as prostitutes in return for remuneration or favour. It leads to emotional and physical harm. HIV/AIDS. STDs, early pregnancies, abortions and death, (Maitra and Ray, 2002), Most victims are either orphaned or from families suffering from domestic violence. Nalule (2011) estimates that 7000-20000 children are involved in prostitution in Uganda, mostly aged 13-17 coming from big families usually associated with huge financial difficulty, violence, away from their parents’ homes, with little or no care, support and guidance. It endangers the child’s physical wellbeing and kills the child’s moral fabric and causes emotional injuries.
Forced Child Street Begging; Andvig (2001), explains that begging is the act of asking for money as charity on the street, and child begging is where children are forced to beg through psychological and physical coercion. The recruitment, transportation, harbouring or receipt of a child in urban centres for the purpose of begging is a common form of child trafficking. Gunnarsson, Orazem and Sedlack (2005) add that it is difficult to regulate since it is imposed by family members. It exists among children as young as the age of two. mostly in South and Central Asia. Latin America, the Caribbean, Middle East, and West Africa: and boys are more prone as most girls engage in prostitution. ILO (2011) notes that there over 6 million children involved in forced begging; 1.5 million in China as source of income.
Apprenticeships; Ambadaker et al note that (1999), this is a controversial form of child labour where it is claimed that the child is learning skills of an occupation to be used later in life career. In reality, employers exploit apprentices as free labour while purporting to teach skills to a new generation. To Dar et al (2002), it is conducted under employment contract, usually within a formalized program under the supervision of national education authorities. In Uganda. COMEECA (2011) notes that, children are not paid as employers claim they are learning skills and disciplines of an occupation; coupled with harsh working conditions like working overtime and assault.
Child soldiers/Children in Armed Conflict; according to Guarcello, Mealli and Rosati (2003), the worst form of child labour is that of targeting children to recruit into ant-government rebellions. Some are forcefully abducted into rebel ranks, while others are lured by the promise of a better life in future. Tens of thousands of girls and boys are forcibly enlisted in the armed forces in at least 17 countries. Duryea et al (2005) explain that conscripted children can be used in three ways: direct roles; supporting roles (messengers or spies) and for political advantage (propaganda). And. girls are vulnerable to sexual violence. UNICEF (2011), notes that child soldiers have become popular in Uganda following the LRA war. There are over 300.000 child soldiers in over 30 global conflicts, some even younger than ten years.
Child Trafficking; Mbakogu (2004) defines it as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, and receipt of a child for the purpose of exploitation. Recruitment occurs when a child is approached by a recruiter; movement occurs locally, regionally or internationally-by car, train, boat or foot. Traffickers use children for illegal profit like forced labour, sexual abuse and begging. According to Beegle et al (2008), it aims at forcing them into sexually or economically oppressive and exploitative situations for profit. ILO (2011) notes that 1.2 million children mainly orphans, are trafficked yearly. They are promised jobs, money and school fees: and guardians are also enticed with remittances. Traffickers vary from individuals, friends, pimps, religious groups to employment bureaus.
Agricultural Farm Labour; Ambadaker el al (1999). estimates that 60%-70% of child labourers work in the agricultural sector. They suffer extremely high illness and injury rates in underground and opencast mines. In Uganda, Guluma (2008) argues that agriculture provides 80% employment and a livelihood to most rural poor. Both food and cash crops, like tea, coffee and tobacco are labour intensive and demand a lot of labour-part of which is provided by children. They engage in tilling land, planting, weeding and harvesting. This is common in commercial plantation farms like sugarcane, tea, coffee and tobacco.
Fishing Activities; according to Fetuga et al (2005). fishing has been a traditional activity on some islands and lake shores. There are many children working through chilly nights on lakes. The risk of accidents and death is very high on canoes without life saving devices. Other hazards include water borne diseases like schistosomiasis, chest pains and fatigue from carrying heavy loads.
According to ILO and IPEC (2007), the risk of STDs and HIV AIDS is high. They engage in actual harvesting and farming of fish-in capturing fishing and aquaculture and all associated operations: processing, smoking, marketing, as well as in upstream industries such as net-making and boat building.
Self-Employed Children; Mwebaze (2007), argues that such children are very few and most of them are boys aged 10-16 years. Most of them come from poor families with limited capital and business skills but some are facilitated by relatives. Some of the earnings are sent back to the relatives; and most of them pay their school fees. Nalule (2011) argues that while most of girls work to support their families, boys preferred an independent lifestyle by renting outside their homes to start an independent life and form their own families. Boys engage in street hawking, head loading, car washing and watching, collecting scrap, construction sites and baking like making chapatti.
Cross Border Smuggling and Drug Trafficking; Uganda experiences smuggling due to tendency by traders to avoid taxes and other legal mechanisms of trade. Children are safe conduits of merchandise at borders. They are used in drug trades in all regions of the world, and are trafficked as drug couriers or dealers, and then paid in form of drugs, and become addicted, (Mugume, 2008). Kantor and Hazyainova (2008) note that due to the illicit nature of drug trafficking apprehended children are often treated as criminals, yet they are in need of legal assistance. Such children are at a risk of engaging in crime, like murder.
Urban Informal Sector and Street Activities; according to Ilahi et al (2005), the urban informal sector has different work settings, ranging from motor garages, carpentry workshops, markets, cooking, vending, and hawking and there are signals that it harbours a considerable number of working children. Half of these children or more appear to be involved in the activities of the informal sector which excludes agriculture and is largely concentrated in the urban areas. In Uganda, by 2001, IPEC and UBOS (2001) estimated that 75% of working children resided in urban areas. Children find themselves employed in the urban informal sector as domestic workers, traders, casual labourers, sex workers, young mechanics, hawking, begging and working in restaurants. The major activities include: hotels, bars and restaurants; mechanics in garages; garbage collection: construction, mining and manufacturing sub-sectors.
From the above arguments, it is clear that child labour exists in different forms, despite the fact that it is against the child rights. All these forms of child labour mentally, physically, socially or morally harm children. Therefore, it is fundamental to clearly comprehend these dynamic forms of child labour if any steps are to be taken to curb the vice.
REASONS FOR INCREASING RATES OF CHILD LABOUR IN UGANDA
Mbakogu (2004), broadly states that the factors that predispose children into child labour are many and work to combination. Most theorists have advanced economic theories to explain child labour. They say children work because of economic reasons mainly attributed to the poor families they come from. But, economic reasons are not enough on their own to cause or reduce child labour. This is evident as economic growth of some countries has not been associated with a reduction in child labour. Thus, child labour is a multifaceted phenomenon associated with ignorance of the victims, societal indifferences, moral degeneration, political and socio-economic factors. The major causes of child labour are further elaborated below:
High Levels of Poverty and Economic Hardships; according to Cigno et al (2001). poverty is the inability of an individual, family or community to attain a minimum standard of living as evidenced by lack of basic needs and services like food, clothing, shelter, basic health, roads, markets, education, information and communication. Fetuga et al (2005) note that parents send their children to work primarily because they want to increase the household income; children are forced to work to survive and minimize risk of interruption of the income stream of the family like poor harvest. According to Roggero et al (2007), in LDCs, where poverty is a major problem, poor parents cannot afford children’s education and they work to support family income. Harsh economic realities, the burden of paying school fees and catering for large families forces parents to send children to work. In Uganda, UBOS (2012) notes that, 38% of the population live in absolute poverty with children constituting 62% of the poor. The number of children who live below the poverty line is rising due to high fertility rate. HIV/AIDS, preventable diseases, insecurity, limited access and control of productive assets, poor production technologies, alcoholism, unemployment; underemployment, lack of markets, education and information.
High Levels of Adult Illiteracy and Ignorance; Canagarajah and Nielsen (1999), note that prevalence of child labour increases with decreasing parental education as educated parents understand the need for a growing child to concentrate on activities capable of enhancing and realization of their full potential and the need to avoid potentially harmful activities. Agbenyiga (2007) argues that due to the high levels of ignorance and illiteracy of parents, the result is lack of education of the child and they have no other options but for children to work and earn a living. If the illiteracy resides in the houses, it becomes difficult or impossible to eradicate child labour. Kabasiita (2009) argues that illiterate people do not think twice about engaging children in manual labour, as they are not aware of the physical and psychological harm it can inflict on the child, and the importance of primary education in children’s lives.
Gender Differences and Inequalities; Maitra and Ray (2002), argue that compared to girls, boys generally have higher participation rates in market work and lower participation rates in domestic work. In both market and domestic work, boys and girls often participate in different tasks. However, girls have special vulnerabilities. Gender inequalities give preference to boys’ education over girls who revolve around domestic work like cooking. These prevent girls from acquiring skills for decent and productive work; and take any kind of job that becomes available to them. According to Lubandi (2008), in Uganda, girls are forced into early marriage at the age of 12-17 due to cultural factors like early marriage, depriving them of their choices hence creating a fertile ground for exploitation. In Karamoja, boys are initiated into cattle keeping and do not go to school or may be removed from school. In other parts of the country however, boys tend to enter petty jobs like wheel barrow pushing, selling food, vending and luggage carrying; fishing, crushing stones, construction and making bricks.
Vulnerability and Dependent Nature of Children; as noted by Chaubey et al (2007), parents are the major decision-makers concerning who among their children works and who goes to school. Young children cannot verbally communicate the harm inflicted on them. According to UYDEL (2009), child labour is entangled in children’s high degree of economic vulnerability. They are most vulnerable when people lack essentials like food, water, sanitation and health care -that is why a child from a poor family will most likely go out to work for economic gains in-order to meet the basic needs especially where, the child is orphaned or where there is a need to supplement the meagre family incomes. UNICEF (2011), notes that children are the most vulnerable group of people due to their position in society with neither power nor means to ensure their protection and realization of their full potential without adult support.
Weak Labour Laws; according to IPEC and UBOS (2001). in Uganda, there is a weak legal frame work that treats child labour as a social issue that can be addressed systematically. IPEC (2007) notes that, existing laws are weak and therefore increases child labour. Despite a recent series of laws prohibiting child labour which makes up a quarter of the unskilled work force in LDCs and can be found in all fields.
Even with laws, most LDCs can’t implement them in the informal sector where most children work. Guluma (2008), adds that Uganda has ratified many policies and laws-national and international, but have not been implemented or are ineffective. These are The National Child Labour Policy (2006), the Children’s Act. the Employment Act (2006), Education Act (2008), and the ILO Convention. COMEECA (2011) argues that constraints to the effective implementation are limited resources, accountability, weak information sharing, coordination, and institutional framework.
Natural Disasters; Mwebaze (2007), argues that food scarcity due to drought, bad weather and poor yields lead to child labour. This usually affects the nomadic tribes like the Karimojong where under-aged girls from Moroto, Kotido and Nakapiripirit districts have been ferried to trading centres in Teso to be sold cheaply as domestic maids due to harsh weather conditions caused by droughts. According Mwebaze (2008), in Karamoja. it has been observed that brokers at weekly cattle markets in Teso sell children and have extended their child trafficking activities in other districts in Uganda and across the border in Kenya, especially Eldoret. UYDEL (2009), notes that desperate parents sell their girl-children in Teso cattle markets like Ochrimongin to raise money to maintain the family. Brokers usually pay between 2-16 US dollars for the children and sell them for about 160 dollars.
High Population Growth Rate and Large Family Sizes; UBOS (2012), observes that Uganda’s population has increased due to high fertility and declining mortality rates. The annual Population Growth Rate (PGR) was 3.2% from 1991-2002 and is now at 3.4%. Nalule (2011), agrees that high PGR causes child labour in Uganda large families with limited resources and many dependants, forces parents to send children to work. This increases expenditure on basics and reduced incomes and. children’s work supplements family incomes to meet daily basics. Kabasiita (2009). notes that Uganda’s population is projected to double by 2025 due to high PGR; with the largest youngest population and a high fertility rate among women aged 15- 49. Large families widen dependency and put more children at risk of child labour.
Child Delinquency, Permissiveness and Peer Pressure; according to Agbenyiga (2007), delinquency of children causes them to be beyond parental care, control and guidance; and have abandoned their homes due to peer pressure. UYDEL (2009) argues that, most parents over burden children with hard tasks like digging. The permissive and delinquent nature of some children that drives them to child labour rests on poor parenting styles. To COMEECA (2011). parental neglect causes children to become juveniles and into child labour to be independent from hostile parents. They resent education due to bad parental influence and the intrinsic forces or pressures within children and desire for independence from adults.
Family Domestic Violence (FDV); as noted by ILO and IPEC (2007), FDV is central in determining the magnitude of child labour in the urban informal sector. It relates to intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or a group leading to injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development or deprivation. According to UNICEF (2011), children who experience or witness FDV experience life-long psychological damage, physical and psychosomatic disorders, behavioural problems and post-traumatic stress. Children in homes with FDV directly engage in forced child labour activities like debt bondage and domestic work; others seek refuge in urban centres where they fall prey to child labour as a survival mechanism.
Weak Public Education Sector; according to Ambadaker et al (1999). most children are put into work due to lack of educational opportunities. They are readily available to work when education is lacking or when the available system does not meet the criteria of affordability, quality and relevance. Fetuga el al (2005) argue that poor households conduct a complex cost-benefit analysis as they assess the trade-offs between work and school and drop-outs are common. In Uganda, UBOS (2012) reports that despite the introduction of Universal Primary and Secondary Education (UPE and USE) in 1997 and 2007, many children shun school due to a weak education system with regional disparities and barriers like fees and costs of scholastics, disability, ill health, early marriages, teenage pregnancy, sexual harassment, household chores, distance to school, insecurity and poor nutrition in schools.
Increasing Local and Global Demand for Cheap Labour, Dar el al (2002), argue that there is notable increase in specialized demand for child labour. Some sectors prefer to engage child labourers for various reasons; their neatness in handling plants or their endurance in crushing stones. Mbakogu (2004) notes that children are sees as better producers of products like knotted carpets, textile and garment. So, they are hired and exploited to work and produce such types of goods. Roggero et al (2007) note the rise of profit oriented business men who cut production costs by employing children, who are in turn paid a lot less and forced to work a lot more. Children are also used in cross-border trade in smuggling and drug dealings. So, the cheap and affordable nature of child labour is a fuelling factor.
Urbanization and Growth of Urban Informal Sector, According to MOGLSD (2004), unbalanced conditions in rural areas and attraction to urban centres (push-and-pull factors) are increasing urbanization in Uganda. Many children are migrating from rural-urban areas to find jobs but end up in the urban informal sector due the ease of entry as most activities require minimal or no skills. The major activities include begging, collecting scrap, domestic work, stone quarries, prostitution, hawking and washing cars. Kabasiita (2009), notes that these activities don’t fit their age and payments rarely exceed UGX 10,000. Urban areas influence children to stay away from school, as they provide employment opportunities during school days.
Rural and Agriculture Dominance, IPEC and UBOS (2001) note that in Uganda, agriculture is the key sector of the economy, providing 80% employment and a livelihood to the majority of the poor in the rural areas and children form a substantial part of the labour force in agriculture. Due to the rural setting and higher value attached to children’s contribution to the family survival, they participate even if it means leaving school. ILO and IPEC (2007), note that agriculture is the sector where around 60% of child labourers in the world work. Kantor and Hazyainova (2008) argue that in rural areas where most of the poor stay, children fall out of school much earlier, hence, the likelihood of child labour. Beegle et al (2008) note that economic activities for children consist mainly of farming, including tending crops in the field, processing crops like tea, coffee, tobacco, sugar cane and rice and livestock.
Irresponsible Parenthood and Child Neglect; as noted by Guarcello et al (2003). neglect is the failure of a parent, guardian, or caregiver to provide for a child’s basic needs. It ma\ be physical (failure to provide necessary food or shelter); medical (failure to provide medical care): educational (failure to educate); emotional (inattention to a child’s emotional needs). According to Ilahi et al (2005), irresponsible parents view child labour with a mixture of indifference, apathy and cynicism and that the only way to combat poverty is to permit children to work. Mugume (2008) argues that parents are guilty of many errors and faults; but their worst crime is abandoning children. Children engaged in work indicate that both parents and the state have in various ways neglected their duties and obligations.
High HIV/AIDS Prevalence Rates and Orphan-hood; IPEC and UBOS (2001) argue that HIV/AIDS has orphaned millions of children and increased child headed families and is increasing child labour in Uganda. Government efforts to curb the disease have been hampered by mismanagement of funds, ignorance and poverty. Gumma (2008), states that most of Uganda’s 1.5million child labourers have been caused by death of parents from HIV/AIDS. By December 2000, over 2 million deaths had occurred; and over 2 million orphans in Uganda. They are forced work to survive, and to look after sick relatives and siblings. Some of them are rejected by their relatives and resort to manual jobs at a tender age.
Civil Wars and Armed Conflicts; Dar et al (2002) assert that war zones are catchment areas for vulnerable children, more so in LDCs, as lack failure to maintain peace and avoid wars has led to Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). In Uganda, MOGLSD (2004) notes that insecurity caused by rebel activities in districts like Gulu, Kitgum, Alebtong and Pader, Kasese and Fortpotal has led to IDPs. In the North, LRA rebels subjected children to torture and earning heavy loads like food and guns and are used to fight the UPDF. Attempts to rescue them are difficult in that the LRA is composed of the very children they intend to rescue and they face them in battle. The LRA and Allied Defence Forces (ADF) abducted over 10,000 and 500 children respectively since 1986. Abducted boys are inducted into the rebel ranks to commit atrocities like killing, looting and rape; girls are raped and forced to marry rebels.
Limited Coverage and Exposure of Child Labour, according to IPEC and UBOS (2001), there is evidence of excessive child labour in Uganda but its extent and magnitude are unknown: more so DCWs whose work is hidden. Kabasiita (2009) views it as an invisible phenomenon as children work in hidden occupations like armed conflict. UBOS (2012), notes that lack of data on child labour denies actors statistical information that is key to combat the practice; like children trafficked yearly due to its covert nature. UN1CEF (2011), notes that in Uganda, media houses neglect the issue. Radio and television stations, and the print media have shown little interest in covering stories of child labour; partly due to its hidden nature.
Imperfect and Inefficient Labour Market; Andvig (2011) notes that labour market segmentation, low wages and high unemployment levels lead to child labour in LDCs. Mugume (2008) argues that Uganda’s labour market dual with three sectors. First, is the informal sector with self-employed individuals or small, privately owned enterprises; no job security and low flexible wages. Second, the formal sector; with medium and large enterprises that hire workers on formal contracts; with various regulations, better conditions, pay and job security. Third, agriculture still employs most rural labour force. Children work since their households are poor and income exclusive of child earnings falls below subsistence levels.
Socio-Cultural Norms, Traditions and Practices, according to Fetuga et al (2005), social, cultural and community norms affect supply and demand of child labour; and the institutional context in which it occurs, making it acceptable or otherwise. In some cultures, it is believed that a girl does not have to go to school but help her parents until she is married. Beegel et al (2008), note that children have been forced into marriage and those who defy resort to work to survive. In most cultures, Nalule (2011) notes that children work as part of the learning process, giving them an opportunity to learn skills, responsibility, self-confidence, and communication skills with peers and adults, and keeps them occupied and out of trouble.
Religious Factors, according to Mbakogu (2004), Moslem children are more often involved in child labour than their Christian counterparts. The influence of religious affiliation in Moslem states and wife seclusion (purdah) puts a great economic burden on children. Chaubey et al (2007) assert that the association of Moslem religion with child labour is related to family size and its traditional teaching of humility through begging; however, in most cases, this has been exploited for personal gain. In West Africa, this malpractice is conducted by Islamic religious teachers whose role is to provide boys between the ages of 7-17 with religious training. Such children are forced to beg for over ten hours a day, being beaten if they do not meet quotas set. routinely denied food and water, and sleep outdoors. UNICEF (2011) states that even if there exists some religious justification for begging, the abuses fall under the definition of trafficking, being that of deception, coercion, force.
In summary, it can be asserted that child labour is caused by a multiplicity of factors. These range from social, cultural, religious, economic, political and even legal factors. It is the inter-play of such factors that dictate the magnitude and direction of child labour.
EFFECTS OF CHILD LABOUR
Gunnarsson et al (2005), observes that identifying the effects of child labour is essential because it enables policy makers to decide which types of child labour to target for eradication. A child develops through four stages including; physical development which is the first stage; cognitive development-the second; emotional development and finally social and moral development. These stages are categorized into physical and psychological development. Any threat on them hinders or is critical to the child’s future. Child labour endangers growth and development as follows;
Low Levels of Education and School Drop-Outs, according to Canagarajah and Nielsen (1999), when children work, they face the risk of denial of education; and undermine access to other opportunities like education. According to Guarcello et al (2003), child labourers’ school attendance is affected by time spent at work. It stops them from going to school and this leaves an illiterate population in the country. UNICEF (2011), notes that children who work have few hours of study leading to poor performance and drop-out. They are forced out of school and to help their families to make ends meet and so are denied the opportunity to acquire knowledge and skills needed for gainful future employment.
Vicious Cycle of Poverty, Ambadekar et al (1999) argue that though child labour is partly caused by poverty, it also perpetuates poverty as it leads to lack of education or skills needed for future employment. A working child abandons education and grows into an adult engulfed in unskilled and poorly paid jobs, works under hazardous conditions and remains wallowing in the vicious circle of absolute poverty. According to Emerson and Souza (2006), child labour upholds the vicious cycle of poverty since poor people without education skills pass on the same to their children; so poverty and child labour are passed from generation to generation. ILO (2011) also notes that, children living in extreme poverty work instead of attending school, their destiny remains doomed to suffer the vicious cycle of poverty. The continued reliance of poor families on the work of children instead of investing in their education is one a most vicious and powerful channel for transferring poverty.
Exploitation and Oppression of Children, according to Maitra and Ray (2002), children’s poverty situation is scaled by exploitation through underpayment, payment in kind or no pay. The lack of bargaining power and skills undermines the children’s position further, condemning them to continuous exploitation and oppression. Beegle et al (2008) argue that child labour is harsh as children are underpaid and some of them are ill-treated and exploited. This makes it hard for children to enjoy their rights. UYDEL (2009) notes that child beggars surrender most of their income to their exploiter, endure unsafe work and living conditions, and are at times maimed to increase profits and are always underpaid.
Physical Abuse and Harm, according to Ambadekar et al (1999), physical abuse a is non-accidental physical injury (minor bruises, severe fractures or death) due to punching, beating, kicking, shaking, throwing, stabbing, choking, hitting, burning, inflicted by a parent, caregiver, or other responsible person. Working children suffer occupational injuries due to inattention, fatigue, poor judgment, limited knowledge as they use equipment, tools and machinery meant for adults. To Emerson and Souza (2006), children do heavy work and their spines and pelvis are usually affected leading to skeletal damage. They experience backaches or permanent disabilities and retarded growth. This is worse in mines, quarries and construction sites. Such hazards affect the overall health of a child, their coordination, strength and vision and in the long run stunt their physical stature by 30%.
Health Complications, according to Andvig (2001), agriculture is hazardous for children due to dangerous chemicals like herbicides or pesticides, heat or weather, injuries, and animals, reptiles, insects, parasites and some plants. Mbakogu (2004) notes that waking up so early affects them because they are exposed to colds and dew; they work for long without food, little pay and dirty drinking water. The Hague (2010) states that occupational health and safety hazards cause immediate health implications-injuries and skin reactions-and long-term effects like cancer, IQ reduction, infertility and back pain. ILO (2011) argues that children are susceptible to thermal stress, environmental temperature and radiation. Collecting metal scraps exposes them to dangerous weapons like bombs and gases which lead to respiratory and gastro-intestinal diseases, poor nutrition, lower haemoglobin levels, frequent headaches, fatigue and vision problem, lower average height and weight.
Psychological Harm and Abuse, according to Dar et al (2002), psychological harm occurs where the behaviour of their parent or caregiver damages the confidence and self-esteem of the child. This includes excessive criticism, withholding affection, domestic violence or intimidation. Guarcello et al (2003) note that, good children withdrawn from school to work exhibit anger, depression and humiliation. Fetuga et al (2005) argue that when work becomes burdensome or abusive, and if work occupies much time that children can’t socialize, their psychological development gets stunted. It creates a sense of persecution, rebellious, aggressive, and violent outbursts and suffer symptoms of withdrawal; regressive behaviour, premature ageing, depression, inferior status and resistance.
Dislike for Work in Adulthood, according to Cigno et al (2001), growing children have special needs and characteristics that must be taken into consideration when defining work plan risks to them. So, the concept of work hazard has to be centred focusing on immediate and long term factors. The main long-term effect of child labour is the emergence of a workforce which has no interest in skilled rewarding work and no respect for a vocational skill only resourcefulness in finding a paying job and increasing income. Chaubey et al (2007), show that lack of education means that when they turn into adults, finding jobs becomes tough as they do not possess necessary skills and training; leading to unemployment.
Juvenile Delinquency and Moral Decline, according to Chaubey et al (2007), these are generally dangers arising from the illegal activities in which children engage. These activities are morally repulsive and affect the sense of uprightness of the child like drug trafficking and commercial sex. Children who engage in commercial sex and those who are sexually abused may become prostitutes in the future and avoid marriage because of the harsh negative condition they went through while young. For children engaged in drug trafficking, they are highly exposed to crime (child crime) and drug use. Beegle et al (2008) argue that abused children are at risk for early behaviour problems and conduct disorder due to exposure to traumatic events. When child beggars grow older, they engage in drug peddling, pick pocketing, robbery and prostitution.
High Morbidity and Mortality Rates among Children, IPEC and UBOS (2001) argue that child labour leads to childhood morbidity due to HIV/AIDS, non-HIV infectious diseases, and malaria. In Uganda, by 2000, occupational mortality rate among children matched that of adults: so children were working in hazardous conditions. According to UBOS (2012), burn injury estimates show that work-related burns were more than one third of all injuries in children. Such conditions and health hazards accelerate mortality and morbidity rates.
Family Disintegration, according to Kabasiita (2009), severe cases of child labour like child trafficking and child soldiers imply that such children are separated from their biological families. This means they are denied the vital love, care and protection that they need at that tender age. It may thus result in poor early childhood development coupled with isolation, irresponsibility and emotional trauma.
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter presents the research design, study population, sample size, the procedures of data collection, the data collection instruments, ethical considerations, and data analysis.
Research Design
According to Baron (2011), qualitative research design helps to capture qualitative data, based on qualitative aspects that cannot be quantified. It aids in discovering the motives and desires or what people think and how they feel about a given subject or situation. A cross sectional survey research design, combined with qualitative methods was used for this study. This method involves an unstructured approach to inquiry and allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it. Its main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude like description of an observed situation, or opinions.
Population of the Study
According to Baron, (2011), this constitutes people-individuals, organizations, groups, communities or other units that provide information or to collect information about for the study. This will include children aged between 8-15 years, local residents (parents and other adults), local leaders and police officers in Kira municipality. Children are key in the study because they are the immediate victims of child labour. The local people will include parents and other adults who take care of children and so could generate reliable information on child labour in their families. Local leaders and police are part of the law enforcement arm of government against child labour.
The Sample Size
The sample refers to a few items selected from the universe or population for study purposes, (Baron, 2011). The study will use a total of 22 respondents, regarded representative of the study population and to provide a manageable volume of data and allow the researcher to make accurate estimates of thoughts and behavior of a larger population.
Children are selected because they key in the study because they are the immediate victims of child labour. The local people will include parents and other adults who take care of children and so could generate reliable information on child labour in their families. Local leaders and police are selected because they are part of the law enforcement arm of government against child labour.
Sampling Procedures
According to Baron (2011), this is a definite plan determined before data collection for obtaining a sample from a given population. It involves three decisions: who to be surveyed, how many people to survey, and how to obtain the sample. Two sampling techniques was used as follows;
Simple Random Sampling: According to Baron (2011), this type of sampling is also known as chance sampling where each and even item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. This was was among local residents of Kira municipality to render each of them eligible for the study.
Purposive Sampling: According to Baron (2011), this involves deliberate selection of particular units of the population for constituting a representative sample. It involves convenience and judgemental sampling. Convenience sampling arises where the population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access. Judgemental sampling is when the researcher uses personal judgment to select the items to include in the sample and helps to develop hypotheses. It was used to select children involved in child labour, police officers and local leaders.
Data Collection Instruments
The study will involve the following instruments;
Self-Administered Questionnaires
The respondents will read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the answers themselves. The questionnaires will consist of open-ended and close-ended questions that was used to collect data from parents, local leaders and parents to extract primary information from them. These was used because they are easy to administer; are less inconveniencing to respondents; and could yield more information for the study.
Interviews
The researcher will strive to get first-hand information by making appointments with individual respondents to answer questions related to the study topic. Semi-structured interviews was used to generate additional information from the respondents. The key respondents will include children who may not have easily comprehended the questionnaires. This will involve a more interactive interface with them as the victims of the vice of child labour.
Procedures of Data Collection
Before data collection, the researcher will ensure the approval of the research instruments especially the questionnaires and interview guide; will obtain the introductory letter from the university; will introduce herself to the authorities, sought participants’ consent and made appointments when to meet them for interviews and data collection, and the data collected was analysed.
Data Processing, Presentation and Analysis
The data was qualitatively analysed. It will involve identifying the major themes arising from the respondents’ answers; assigning codes to these themes; classification of the major responses under the main theme; and integrating the responses into the report in a descriptive and analytical manner.
Research Ethical Considerations
The researcher will collect data upon seeking respondents’ consent after revealing the type of information needed and the purpose to avoid potential concealment of vital information.
Information regarded as sensitive, say on existence of child labour in families was indirectly sought to avoid the psychological harm or discomfort it can impose on the respondents. The researcher also will maintain confidentiality of respondents’ information; and will report the true findings of the study without any bias.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, INTERPRENTATION AND ANALYSIS
Introduction
This chapter presents the study findings in reference to the research objectives. Focus was put on presentation, analysis and discussion of findings in line with study objectives. The chapter first presents respondents’ background features, while other sections present the study findings study objective. The response rate was 100%, as all the 22 respondents responded positively to the study.
Background Characteristics of Respondents
Sex of Respondents
The sex distribution for the 22 respondents was such that lo were female and 12 were male. In specific terms, for children, 2 were male and 3 were female; for parents, 6 were male and 4 were female; for local leaders 3 were male and 2 were female; and for police officers, 1 was female and 1 was male. The involvement of both male and female sexes in the study was due to fact that they are prominent constituents of all households in Kira municipality. Also, both have either perpetrated or been affected by child labour; so they are both potential and actual victims and/or perpetrators of child labour. So, the study was gender sensitive and representative by seeking information from male and female respondents influence the occurrence and control of child labour in society.
Age Distribution of Respondents
The respondents’ age distribution was such that 5 were aged below 18 years and this included all children who participated in the study; 4 were aged 18-30 years; 9 were aged 31-50 years; and 4 were aged above 50 years. All respondents below 18 years as regarded as children and these are the actual and potential victims of child labour in the society. Those aged above 18 years included all parents who are the key perpetrators of child labour and are equally the major stakeholders in the control of child labour in their families. The local leaders and police officers are key stakeholders in fighting child labour. Thus, the study captured comprehensive information from children as victims of child labour; and the adults who are the perpetrators and stakeholders in eliminating the vice.
Level of Education of Respondents
The findings on the levels of education were that 4 were uneducated; 10 had attained primary education; 04 had attained secondary education; 2 had and diplomas and 2 had degrees. Thus, most of them were either uneducated or attained a maximum of primary education. The education level is a key determinants of respondents’ understanding of the concept of child labour, its dynamic forms, causes, effects, victims, perpetrators, and each stakeholder’s role in eliminating the vice. So, if most of them are less educated, their understanding of child labour could equally be low. Additionally, the education level affects their attitudes towards elimination of child labour.
Marital Status of Respondents
On respondents’ marital status, 6 were unmarried; 16 were married; with no cases of widowhood or divorce. As indicated, all children were unmarried and so belong to families and are majorly taken care of by adults who may subject them to child labour. Most parents, police officers and local leaders were married and so managed families where children are prominent constituents. It is therefore important to note that most of these adults had families where there is potential for occurrence of child labour and the entire community.
Occupation of Respondents
The occupations of the respondents were such that 5 were school children, 2 were police officers, housewives were 3; 5 were local leaders; 4 were peasant farmers, and 3 were teachers. This shows that the respondents belonged to different occupations in different sectors-formal, semi-formal and informal, with varying incidence of child labour. What is notable is the presence of peasant farming where child labour is commonest. On the whole, the degree of incidence of child labour varies in each of these sectors as perpetrated by different people in each sector.
Presentation of Findings
Forms of Child Labour in Families in Kira municipality 4.2.1 Respondents’ Understanding of Child Labour
The study sought to establish the different ways in which respondents understood child labour. Here, 12 out of 22 respondents viewed it as subjecting children to harmful forms of work; 4 viewed it as overworking children below 18 years; 3 viewed it as work that is abusive and denies children the right to go to school; 2 defined at as making children do work beyond their ability. Finally, 1 respondent defined child labour as a situation of adults exploiting children for personal gains. So, it can be generally concluded that child labour was viewed to be physically and psychologically harmful to children, denies them chance to attend to school totally or regularly, and is normally imposed on them by adults. Thus, all respondents had abstract ideas as regards child labour and understood its basics, more especially the forms, perpetrators and key victims of the vice in their communities.
Existence of Child Labour in Kira municipality
The study established the respondents’ acknowledgement of the existence of child labour in Kira municipality. Accordingly, the majority of them, representing 20 out of 22 respondents, were fully aware of the existence of child labour in the area; 2 were uncertain of its existence, and none of them denied its existence. This strengthened the study and provided a strong ground for its progress as the study theme (child labour) was existent in the study area as acknowledged by all the different respondent categories.
Various Forms of Child Labour in Kira municipality
The various forms of child labour in Kira municipality were established by the study. Accordingly, the majority 18 cited agricultural farm labour as the commonest form of child labour in the area, being rural and agricultural based as children provide labour in family gardens and other farms for commercial purposes.
Additionally, urban informal sector employment was noted by 7 out of the 22 respondents as some children migrate to urban areas to look for odd-jobs after dropping out of school or due to family pressure; 6 noted that some children resorted to self-employment in different activities to make ends meet in their families. Commercial sexual exploitation of children by adults was reported by 5 with cases of defilement highly reported. Also, 4 cited existence of domestic child workers; and 4 reported child trafficking by cross-border traders and other illegal gangs in the area. Forced child labour and apprenticeships were both noted by 3 respondents apiece. Therefore, from these findings, it can be concluded that child labour manifests itself in various dynamic forms in the study area.
Categories of Children Vulnerable to Child Labour in Kira municipality
The study also discovered the major categories of children who are vulnerable to the vice of child labour in Kira municipality. Orphans were noted by the majority thus 18 out of 22 respondents as the key victims as they are forced to make ends meet sometimes on their own or are exploited by relatives who take care of them. This was followed by the girl-child cited by 14 respondents especially in domestic activities as defined by their cultures and norms; and children living with relatives were noted by at 10 to be vulnerable to this vice. Other victims included school drop outs, noted by 9 who seek employment at a young age; children living with biological parents noted by 5; 4 noted delinquent children who fall prey especially to peer pressure to engage in child labour; 1 identified adopted and abandoned children apiece. Thus, notably child labour is majorly prevalent orphans and other categories of children living either with relatives or even their own biological parents. What is notably is that all these children are indeed vulnerable and can all be exploited by adults in society.
Perpetrators of Child Labour in Kira municipality
The study further established different categories of persons responsible for the prevalence of child labour in Kira municipality. Most respondents, 15 out of 22 respondents quoted biological parents as key promoters of child labour as they subject their own children to this vice right from their own families as family-heads. Also, 13 of them identified business men and traders as they recruit children in trade activities like hawking and carrying merchandise; while 12 held adult family members and close and distant relatives like brothers, sisters, uncles and aunties also perpetrated child labour. Also, factories and plantation farm owners were noted by 10 respondents to recruit children in on-farm and off-farm labour; while 8 cited schools as another place where teachers subject the school children to child labour on school farms. Finally, 5 respondents argued that rebel groups and other criminal groups promoted child labour by recruiting children in activities like drug trafficking. Thus, it shows that child labour in society is perpetuated by different categories of people and the community at large, starting from individual families, with biological parents playing a key role in promoting the vice.
Reasons for Increased Child Labour in Kira municipality
Trend of Child Labour in Kira municipality
The study sought respondents’ view on the trend of child labour in Kira municipality. Accordingly, the majority, 18 out of 22 respondents, observed that the incidence of child labour is on the rise; 1 noted that it was declining; while 3 noted that it was at the constant rate. Thus, as portrayed, it can be asserted that child labour is on an increasing rate in Kira municipality as admitted by the local people.
Factors for Increasing Rates of Child Labour in Kira municipality
The factors for the increased rates of child labour in Kira municipality were also identified. The majority, 12 out of 22 respondents cited poverty and economic hardships as the main cause; high population growth, large families and rural agricultural dominance were noted by 8 respondents apiece; and 7 noted the high levels of illiteracy and ignorance among adults about child labour. Also, 6 apiece cited high rates of urbanization and informal sector, HIV/AIDS and orphan hood, and child neglect by parents as key factors respectively. Gender differences and inequalities, domestic violence, and social, cultural and religious factors were noted by 5 of the respondents respectively. The vulnerability and dependence of children, and delinquency and peer pressure among children were noted 4 respondents. Finally, 3 of the respondents apiece at pointed the role of weak national labour laws, increasing demand for cheap labour, civil wars/armed conflicts, and limited exposure of the vice for increasing incidence of child labour in the area. Notably therefore, the rising cases of child labour in the area are a result of political, social, economic, environmental, internal, external, short term and long term factors.
Effects of Child Labour in Kira municipality
Existence of Negative Effects of Child Labour
The study sought to find out if the respondents did acknowledge that child labour negatively affects the victims, families, the community and the economy. From the findings, most respondents, 18 out of 22 respondents, did agree that child labour had negative effects on different parties and at different levels in Kira municipality; 3 were uncertain and ONLY 1 disagreed. This revelation was fundamental as most respondents did confirm that child labour negatively affected its victims, families and society. It therefore tasked the study to further probe and ascertain these negative effects.
Effects of Child Labour in Kira municipality
The study further presented the effects of child labour, where the majority of the respondents, 15 out of 22 respondents reported that child labour caused physical harm and injuries to children as victims; 13 noted that it led to health hazards and diseases to children; 10 noted low education levels and high school dropouts among affected children as they are forced to balance work and school and most of them may drop out of school. Further, 9 of them cited high child morbidity and mortality rates among victims of child labour as the effects may be so destructive and lead to death of victims; while 8 apiece noted that child labour led to psychological torture or depression and stress among children and children’s negative attitude and dislike for work when they graduate to adulthood due to horrible adulthood experiences at work. The increased child sexual abuse in commercial sex was cited by 7 respondents; 5 respondents argued that child labour led to increased moral decline among children when engaged in illegal activities like commercial sex. Finally, 3 apiece argued that child labour led to family breakdowns, and perpetuated the vicious cycle of poverty in families. Therefore, it is clear that child labour leaves destructive effects on the children as its victims. It affects their physical, psychological, educational, moral and social spheres of life in the short, medium and long-term. It also spreads to families of such children, local communities, and the economy, leaving both short and long-term undesirable political, social, economic, and environmental outcomes.
Responsibility for Fighting Child Labour in Kira municipality
The study also established different categories of stakeholders responsible for the fight against child labour are outlined. Most respondents, 18 out of 22 respondents, emphasized that parents were the key people in fighting child labour. Also, 15 and 14 respondents quoted police and local leaders respectively to play a key part; while 13 noted the key role of the community, and 10 of them pointed out the government as a key stakeholder. Finally, 4 apiece identified children themselves and NGOs and civil society, and 2 of them held labour unions responsible for fighting the vice of child labour. This shows that the elimination of child labour is a multi-stakeholder effort, starting with the family to the community, government, and other law enforcement bodies with key binding roles in the process.
Measures to Control Child Labour in Kira municipality
The different measures that can be taken to control child labour in Kira municipality were noted. Here, 15 out of 22 respondents cited the need for sensitization and awareness creation among masses on the forms, causes, effects and remedies of child labour to make them more vigilant in fighting the vice. Also, 13 of them forwarded the need for prosecution of perpetrators of child labour under national labour laws; and 12 urged for strengthening child protection laws against child labour. Also, 8 of the respondents apiece cited the need for strengthening labour laws and encouraging children to attend school. Further, 6 of them suggested full exposure of child labour in the media and other platforms to create more awareness of its forms, causes and effects; while 5 urged for partnerships among different stakeholders like community, police, local leaders and civil society to eliminate child labour.
Most respondents 13 out of 22 respondents cited the need for social, cultural and religious reforms, as well as enhancing political stabilization and border security to curb cross border child trafficking and use of children in illegal cross border trade. The counselling of victims of child labour, and controlling rural-urban migration among children was forwarded by 4 of them; and. Therefore, the curbing of child labour involves different measures taken by different parties including government, police, parents, the community, local leaders and even the victims of child labour themselves.
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
This chapter presents a summary of the study findings, conclusion(s) drawn, recommendations, and areas for further research basing on study findings. The study involved an examination of factors for increased rate of child labour among families in Kira municipality, Wakiso district. The summary of findings is based on the specific objectives of the study as summarized below;
Discussion of Study Findings
Discussion on Forms of Child Labour
The study first sought the different ways in which respondents understood child labour. Generally, all the definitions centred on subjecting children below eighteen years to harmful forms of work as in line with the definition of MOGLSD (2004). One respondent viewed child labour as “forms of work that are beyond the physical and mental capability of children below eighteen years.” Another respondent, during the interview, emphasized that, “child labour is abusive and denies children the right to go to school and is harmful for their physically and psychologically development”. Basing on their definitions, the respondents confirmed the existence of child labour in Kira municipality. From the researcher’s perspective, child labour in the area is manifested in many dynamic forms. What is clear though, is that the concept of child labour is not new but has only been under-looked.
The major form of child labour noted was agricultural farm labour. One of the children interviewed revealed that: “when there is a lot of work, he forces me to miss school to help them with the garden work”. One respondent lamented. This revelation concurs with the finding of Ambadaker et al (1999) who found out that 60%-70% of child labourers in LDCs work in the agricultural sector. Being an integral part of any family, children too are inevitably dragged into farm activities as family labour.
The other major form identified was drug trafficking. One respondent observed that: “‘Some children in this area have been taken away by businessmen, sometimes with the consent of their parents who are paid a sum of money by some traders who intend to use them in running their business”. This agrees with Mugume (2008) who stated that some children are used by traders to avoid taxes and other legal trade mechanisms. The other major form of child labour was urban informal sector employment, where one respondent noted that: “Some of our children have dropped out of school and gone to the city to look for jobs so that they can earn a living and also help their families because of the high level of poverty in the area”. The other forms of the vice were self-employment by children in various activities, commercial sexual exploitation, domestic child workers, forced child labour, apprenticeships in various organizations; and child trafficking. To the researcher, these revelations aid in exposing the forms of child labour to which children are subjected. What should be noted is that respondents are aware of the vice and how it is carried out.
The major victims of child labour were orphans, the girl-child, children living with relatives, school drop outs, children living with biological parents, delinquents, adopted and abandoned children. One respondent observed that: “In most families, girls are more abused by being made to perform most domestic activities like cooking and laundry. The reason is that they are being trained on how to perform their future roles when they get married”. The key perpetrators of child labour included biological parents, business men and traders, adult family members, close and distant relatives, factories and plantation farms, schools, rebel groups and other criminal groups. One respondent noted that, “The major people responsible for child labour in this area are parents. They directly involve children in heavy work and sometimes allow children to be so free to do anything including child labour activities like commercial garden work on other people’s farms or leaving the village at a young age to look for jobs in towns. These all agree with the findings of UYDEL (2007) and COMEECA (2011). The researcher intervenes, there are many perpetrators of child labour; but the influence of parents both in perpetrating and controlling the vice of child labour is fundamental.
Discussion on Reasons for Increased Child Labour
The key factors for increasing incidence of child labour in Kira municipality included poverty and economic hardships in families. As noted by one female respondent: “I have a very large family without any regular or reliable source of income. My children play a big role in ensuring that the family basic needs are met. Together, we do a lot in work to make sure we produce enough food to sustain the family”. This revelation agrees with Fetuga et al (2005) who noted that most parents send their children to work primarily because they want to increase household income. The researcher’s view is that most families in the area are indeed poor and children are seen as key players in ensuring that the family livelihood is enhanced. High levels of illiteracy and ignorance among adults and even children about child labour; and this finding agrees with Agbenyiga (2007) who asserted that high levels of ignorance and illiteracy result in lack of education for children who are left with no option but to work and earn a living for themselves and their families. As one elder responded: “I did not go to school and from my experience, I grew up knowing that a child is meant to help the family, meet its needs by being active in major areas including work. It even helps him or her grow into a responsible adult”. With limited knowledge, most parents and other adults make children do work that is even beyond their capacity, hence culminating into child labour.
The vulnerable and dependent nature of children was also noted and this finding concurs with that of UYDEL (2009), that children are entangled in high degree of economic vulnerability especially when they lack essentials like food, water and shelter. One respondent stressed that: “In Kira, a child has no say and is supposed to obey the adults’ commands. So, if given work to do, he/she has no option but to do it; otherwise it would imply disobedience and more punishment”. The gender differences and inequalities were central as one girl interviewed narrated her ordeal: “In our home, I do most of the work including cooking, washing utensils and plates, fetching water and firewood while my brothers who are even older than me are given very little work to do. They say I must do more so that I grow up into a hardworking woman and I don’t disappoint them when I get married”. The researcher observed that the traditional belief that the girl child must learn all tasks in the home is still relevant in the area of study. Parents rely on this to make girls work more than boys.
Notably, one police officer cited the limited exposure of child labour in the area as a major fuelling factor. She stated that: “The police force has nearly failed to control child labour because its cases rarely come into the spotlight. It takes place in hidden homesteads and even victims are too young to report such cases are intimidated by the perpetrators. The community too has not done much to cooperate with police to weed out child labour by not reporting such cases”. The researcher noted that police cannot do much to control child labour without the joint effort of parents, the community and most importantly, children as victims. If they do not report such cases, police has no way of convicting the criminals since child labour is quite hidden. The other factors included population growth and large families, the rural agricultural dominance which is labour intensive and with a high participation rate of children; the high rates of urbanization and growth of informal sector that tend to attract children, high HIV/AIDS prevalence rates and orphan hood, child neglect by parents, domestic violence, social, cultural and religious factors, delinquency and peer pressure, weak labour laws, demand for cheap labour, civil wars or armed conflicts. Therefore, child labour, along with its numerous dynamic forms, originates from a wide range of economic, political and social factors.
Discussion on Effects of Child Labour
The effects of child labour included physical harm to children as victims. It agrees with Emerson and Souza (2006) who noted that children do heavy work and their spines and pelvis leading to skeletal damage and it affects their physical stature by 30%. One child interviewed lamented that: “I also always feel tired and frequent headache because of heavy work at home”. The health hazards and spread of diseases to children were also noted just as did The Hague (2010) that observed that occupational and health and safety hazards cause immediate implications and skin irritations and long terms effects like cancer, IQ reduction and infertility. As one respondent admitted: “Some sicknesses that these children develop is because of the heavy work they do which is beyond their capacity”. Thus, the researcher also concludes that child labour causes physical and health hazards to children.
The low education levels and high school drop-outs was noted and this agrees with Canagarajah and Nielsen (1999) who noted that children who work face the risk of denial of education and school attendance is affected by time spent at work. One child lamented that: “Every week, I miss one school day to help my parents with farm work. And in the period of harvest, I can even miss school for a whole week”. Another child added: “I always go to school very late and tired after doing garden work for almost two hours. When I reach late, the teacher punishes me sometimes by caning or more garden work in the school garden”. The researcher’s view is that, work and school are two competing alternatives for some children in the study area; and the intensity of the former greatly undermines the latter. The others major effects included high child morbidity and mortality rates; psychological torture and stress among children; children’s dislike for work in adulthood; increased child sexual abuse and moral decline; family breakdowns, and vicious cycle of poverty.
To control child labour, parents, police, local leaders, community, government, children, NGOs, and labour unions were cited. The steps were: sensitization and awareness creation, prosecution of perpetrators of child labour; strengthening child protection and labour laws, encouraging children to attend school; exposure of child labour cases, partnerships among stakeholders, counselling of victims, controlling rural-urban migration; social, cultural and religious reforms; and political stabilization and security. One parent stresses that: “The parents have the greatest role to play in controlling child labour, being the heads of families where these children live. We cannot blame the police or other people when we are the very ones engaging children in heavy work in our homes”. Thus, controlling child labour is a multi-stakeholder task that requires their coordination as well.
Conclusion
Child labour is a major concern for the government, NGOs, development agencies like 1LO, health practitioners and the entire population in Uganda and globally. Many conclusions can be drawn on the incidence, forms, perpetrators, victims, causes, effects, and remedies to the social vice of child labor. It burdens children below eighteen years to psychologically and physically harmful forms of work like farm work, child soldiers, cross-border smuggling and drug trafficking, urban informal sector work, self-employment, commercial sex, domestic child workers, child trafficking, forced child labour and apprenticeships. The victims are orphans, the girl-child, children living with relatives and even biological parents, school drop outs, delinquents, adopted and abandoned children; while the major promoters range from biological parents, business men and traders, relatives, factories and plantation farms, schools, or rebel groups.
Child labour is a product of the interplay of political, social, economic and external factors that relate to the local population or demographics, labour and child protection sectors, government and the extraneous environment. The major ones are: poverty and economic hardships; high population growth, agriculture, ignorance, urbanization, HIV/AIDS and orphan hood, child neglect, domestic violence, social, cultural and religious factors, children’s vulnerability, and weak national labour and child protection laws. Its effects include physical and psychological harm to children; health hazards and diseases; low education levels and high school drop-outs; high child morbidity and mortality rates; children’s dislike in adulthood; increased child sexual abuse and moral decline; family breakdowns, and perpetuating the vicious cycle of poverty in families. So, it is necessary to take measures to control this vice; including: sensitization and awareness creation, prosecution of perpetrators; strengthening child protection and labour laws, encouraging children to attend school; exposure of child labour, partnerships, controlling rural-urban migration; social, cultural and religious reforms; and enhancing political stabilization. This requires the joint effort of parents, police, local leaders the community, government, children, NGOs, civil society, and labour unions.
Recommendations
Basing on the study findings and the conclusion drawn, the recommendations derived for the public, government, children, laws enforcers, development agencies and other stakeholders include:
First and foremost, the study forwards the need for massive sensitization of parents, children, and the general public on child labour, including its forms, victims, perpetrators, causes, its effects on children and the community, and their roles and other responsibilities in curbing the vice. This will help to enlighten them so that they become collectively vigilant in monitoring and fighting the vice.
The study also recommends the need for educational reforms so that the education system and the major elements of the education processes are less burdening and yet more convenient for children to support their school attendance. This would minimise the tendency of some children dropping out of school early to seek odd jobs, especially in the urban informal sector.
There is also need for government, local leaders, and NGOs need to take measures to empower children as one way of curbing child labour. When empowered with knowledge and information on child labour and their rights, children can aid in the fight by identifying the forms of child labour they are subjected to and effectively reporting such cases to relevant authorities for action.
There is need to strengthen the national labour laws and the police force as the law enforcement body in a bid to curb child labour. The government should revise its labour laws to incriminate child labour and strengthen the police force and provide adequate resources to fight child labour.
Finally, the study forwards the need for the government to provide more economic opportunities for the predominantly poor rural families to increase their incomes and improve livelihoods. This will lure them away from exploiting young children to increase family earnings and improve welfare.
Areas for Further Research
The study identified the following areas for further research:
- To conduct a comparative study on the incidence of child labour in all regions of Uganda.
- To analyse the long-term effect of child labour on the growth and development of the child.
- To establish the major steps being taken to curb chid labour in Uganda.
- To analyse the long term effect of child labour on national economic growth and development.
REFERENCES
Agbenyiga, B.L (2007), Child Labour: Family Survival Strategies and their Impact on Child Development -A Call to Action, Michigan State University. Michigan, USA
Ambadekar. N.N. Wahab S.N. Zodpey S.P, and Khandait D.W (1999), Effect of Child Labour on Growth of Children, Journal of Public Health Vol.113(6):P303-306, Nagpur-Maharashtra, India.
Andvig, J.C (2001), Family-Controlled Child Labour in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Survey of Research, Social Protection Discussion Paper 0122, The World Bank, Washington, USA
Baron, M (2011), Guidelines for Writing Research Proposals and Dissertations
Beegle, K, Dehejia, R, Gatti, R Krutikova, S (2008), The Consequences of Child Labour: Evidence from Longitudinal Data in Rural Tanzania. Working Paper 4677, World Bank, Washington, USA
Canagarajah. S and Nielsen, H.S (1999), Child Labour and Schooling in Africa: A Comparative Study. Social Protection Discussion Paper Series No. 9916, The World Bank, Washington, USA
Chaubey, J, Perisic. M. Perrault, N Adjei, G.L and Khan, N (2007), Child Labour, Education and Policy Options, Working Papers, Division of Policy and Planning, UNICEF, New York, USA .
Cigno, A, Rosati. C and Tzannatos, Z (2001), Child Labour, Nutrition and Education in Rural India: Economic Analysis of Parental Choice and Policy Options, The World Bank, Washington, USA
COMEECA (2011). A Community Education Manual for Local Community Facilitators on Prevention of Child Labour in Uganda. Kampala. Uganda
Dar, A, Blunch. N.H, Kim, B and Sasaki. M (2002), Participation of Children in Schooling and Labor Activities: A Review of Empirical Studies, The World Bank, Washington D.C, USA
Duryea, S. Hoek. .1. Lam. D and Levison, D (2005), Dynamics of Child Labour: Labour Force Entry and Exit in Urban Brazil, Social Protection Discussion Paper Series No. 0513, Social Protection Unit Human Development Network, The World Bank, Washington D.C, USA
Emerson, P.M and Souza, A.P (2006), Is Child Labour Harmful? The Impact of Working Earlier in Life on Adult Earnings, Sao Paulo School of Economics, The 2005 Latin American and Caribbean Economics Association Conference, Sao Paolo. Brazil.
Fetuga. B.M. Njokama, F.O and Olowu. A.O (2005), Prevalence, Types and Demographic Features of Child Labour among School Children in Nigeria, Obafemi Awolowo College of Health Sciences, Sagamu, Ogun State, Nigeria
Guarcello, L. Mealli, F and Rosati. F.C (2003), Household Vulnerability and Child Labour: The Effect of Shocks, Credit Rationing and Insurance, Social Protection Discussion Paper Series No.0322, Social Protection Unit, The World Bank, Washington D.C, USA
Guluma, F.C (2008), Child Labour: A Threat to the Future Skilled Manpower in Uganda, Paper for Presentation at the International Conference on Child Labour and Child Exploitation at the Cairns Convention Centre, Queensland, Australia
Gunnarsson, V, Orazem, P.F and Sedlacek, G (2005), Changing Patterns of Child Labour around the World since 1950: The Roles of Income Growth, Parental Literacy and Agriculture, Social Protection Discussion Paper Series No.05JO, The World Bank, Washington D.C, USA
Ilahi, N. Orazem, P.F and Sedlacek, G (2005), How Does Working as a Child Affect Wage, Income and Poverty as an Adult? Social Protection Discussion Paper Series No. 0514, Social Protection Unit Human Development Network, The World Bank, Washington D.C, USA
ILO and IPEC (2007), Explaining the Demand and Supply of Child Labour: A Review of the Underlying Theories, Geneva, Switzerland
ILO (2011), Harvesting a Future without Child Labour: Eliminating Harmful Practices in Agriculture, International Programe on Elimination of Child Labour in Agriculture, Turin, Italy
IPEC and UBOS (2001), Child Labour in Uganda, A Report Based on the 2000/200J Uganda Demographic and Health Survey, Kampala, Uganda
Kabasiita, M (2009), Combating Child Labour in Uganda: Challenges and Prospects from a Development Perspective-Case Study: Kisenyi Slum, Kampala District, Development Studies Masters ‘ Thesis; University of South Africa
Kantor, P and Hozyainova, A (2008), Factors Influencing Decisions to Use Child Labour in Rural and Urban Afghanistan: A Case Study of Poor Households in’Kabul. Case Study Series, Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, Kabul. Afghanistan
Kothari. C.R (2005). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, 2nd Ed, New Age International Publishers Limited, Daryaganj. New Delhi, India
Lubandi. J (2008), The Neglected African Children: Protection, Recovery and Reintegration of Sexually Abused and Exploited Children in Uganda, Africa Cinema and Culture, Kampala, Uganda
Maitra, P and Ray, R (2002). The Joint Estimation of Child Participation in Schooling and Employment: Comparative Evidence from Three Countries, Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 30 No. 1 PP 41-62, Oxford University, UK
Mbakogu, LA (2004), Exploring the Forms of Child Abuse in Nigeria: Efforts at Seeking Appropriate Preventive Strategies, Journal of Social Sciences, Vol.8 No. 1, Oyo State, Nigeria
MOGLSD (2004). National Orphans and Other Vulnerable Children Policy-Hope Never Runs Dry, Final Draft, Kampala, Uganda
Mugume. Adam (2008), Explaining Child Labour in Uganda, Centre for Socio-Economic Research and Training, Working Paper No. 2008/01, Bank of Uganda, Kampala, Uganda
Mwebaze, T (2007), Extent and Determinants of Child Labour in Uganda, African Economic Research Consortium, Research Paper 167, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
Nalule, V (2011), Challenges of Child Labour in Uganda: A Case Study of the Urban Informal Sector in Kampala District, Masters’ Thesis, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.
Roggero. P, Mangiaterra, V, Bustreo, F and Rosati, F (2007), The Health Impact of Child Labour in Developing Countries: Evidence From Cross-Country Data, Washington D.C, USA
The Hague (2010), Roadmap for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour by 2016, The Hague Global Child Labour Conference: A World without Child Labour, The Netherlands
UBOS (2012), Uganda Demographic and Health Survey 2011, Kampala, Uganda
UNICEF (2011). Creating Safe Futures: Good Practices to Protect Children and Youth from Hazardous Work, Workshop Report, New York, USA
UYDEL (2009), Child Protection Project Mid Term Evaluation Report. Supported by the OAK Foundation and Children’s Rights Advocacy and Lobby Mission, Kampala, Uganda
APPENDIX 1: RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRES FOR LOCAL LEADERS
Dear Respondent:
My name is Asiimwe Sandra. a student of Kyambogo University pursuing a Bachelor’s Degree in Bachelor of community based rehabilitation. I am carrying out research on “Factors for the increased rate of child labour among families in Kira Municipality is part of the requirements by the University for this Award. I humbly request you to take part by filling in this questionnaire. All information will be treated with confidentiality and used for academic purposes.
Section A: Bio Data of Respondents
- Sex of the respondents
Male Female
- Age
18-30years 31-40years 41-50years 51years and above
Marital status:
Single Married Widowed Divorced
Others (specify)…………………
- What is your level of education?
Uneducated Primary Secondary Certificate Degree
Other (specify)…………………..
- What is your occupation?
……………………………………………………………………………………
Section B: Forms of Child Labour in Families
- Do you have children?
Yes No
- If yes, do they go to school? If no. why?
Yes No
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
- Do your children work at home
Yes No
- Have you ever heard of the concept of child labour?
Yes No Not sure
- If Yes, what kind of work?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
- Do you agree that child labour exists in this municipality?
Yes No Not sure
Forms
- If yes, what forms of child labour do you witness? (Tick whichever is appropriate)
| Forms | Tick | Forms | Tick |
| Domestic child workers | Child soldiers | ||
| Forced or bonded child labour | Child tracking | ||
| Commercial Sexual exploitation | Fishing Activities | ||
| Forced Child Street Begging | Attraction of NGOs | ||
| Apprenticeships | Attraction of NGOs | ||
| Cross Border Smuggling | Self-Employed Children | ||
| Urban informal sector activities | Drug Trafficking | ||
| Infrastructural development |
Others
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- What kinds of children are vulnerable to child labour in this Municipality?
Delinquent children Children living with relatives children living with biological parents Adopted children School drop-out
- Who engages the children in these types of work?
Biological parents Adult family members Relatives Family friends
Criminal gangs Rebels groups Schools Peer groups The community
Business men and traders Factories Plantation farms
Others specify
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Section C: Reasons for Increased Child Labour in Families
- In your own view, what is the current state of child labour in your community?
Increasing Decreasing Not charging
- What are the reasons for the increasing rates of child labour in your community?
| Reasons | Tick | Tick | |
| Weak labour laws | Poverty and economic hardships | ||
| Natural disasters | Adult illiteracy and ignorance | ||
| Family domestic violence | Gender differences and inequalities | ||
| Weak public education sector | urbanization and urban informal sector | ||
| Rural and agriculture dominance | Delinquency, permissiveness/peer pressure | ||
| Irresponsible parents/child neglect | Increasing demand for cheap labour | ||
| Religious factors | Imperfect and inefficient labour market | ||
| Civil wars and armed conflicts | HIV/AIDS and orphan-hood | ||
| Limited coverage and exposure | Urbanization and urban informal sector | ||
| socio-cultural norms and traditions | High population growth and large families |
Others specify
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Section D: Effects of Child Labour
- Do you agree that child labour negatively affects child growth and development?
Yes No Not sure
- If yes, in what ways? (Tick whichever is appropriate)
| Effects | Tick | Effects | Tick |
| v education levels and school drop-outs | Vicious cycle of poverty | ||
| Psychological harm and abuse | physical abuse and harm | ||
| dislike for work in adulthood high morbidity and mortality rates | Exposure to traumatic events | ||
| juvenile delinquency and moral decline | Early girl child marriages | ||
| Child sexual abuse | Health hazards | ||
| Increased cases of child sacrifice | Family disintegration Religious factors |
Other (specify)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- How does child labour affect the family and community
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- How does child labour affect the nation and economy
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- Who is responsible for fighting child labour in your community?
Labour Unions Community Government Police
NGOs and Civil Parents Labour Unions
- As a parent, what have you done to stop child labour in your community?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION
APPENDIX II: RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRES FOR POLICE OFFICERS
Dear Respondent:
My name is Asiimwe Sandra. a student of Kyambogo University pursuing a Bachelor’s Degree in Bachelor of community based rehabilitation. I am carrying out research on “Factors for the increased rate of child labour among families in Kira Municipality is part of the requirements by the University for this Award. I humbly request you to take part by filling in this questionnaire. All information will be treated with confidentiality and used for academic purposes.
Section A: Bio Data of Respondents
- Sex of the respondents
Male Female
- Age
18-30years 31-40years 41-50years 51years and above
Marital status:
Single Married Widowed Divorced
Others (specify)…………………
- What is your level of education?
Uneducated Primary Secondary Certificate Degree
Other (specify)…………………..
Section B: Forms of Child Labour in Families
- In your view, what do you understand by the term child labour?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
- Do you agree that child labour exists in this municipality?
Yes No Not sure
Forms
- If yes, what forms of child labour do you witness? (Tick whichever is appropriate)
| Forms | Tick | Forms | Tick |
| Domestic child workers | Child soldiers | ||
| Forced or bonded child labour | Child tracking | ||
| Commercial Sexual exploitation | Fishing Activities | ||
| Forced Child Street Begging | Attraction of NGOs | ||
| Apprenticeships | Attraction of NGOs | ||
| Cross Border Smuggling | Self-Employed Children | ||
| Urban informal sector activities | Drug Trafficking | ||
| Infrastructural development |
Others
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- What kinds of children are vulnerable to child labour in this Municipality?
Delinquent children Children living with relatives children living with biological parents Adopted children School drop-out
- Who engages the children in these types of work?
Biological parents Adult family members Relatives Family friends
Criminal gangs Rebels groups Schools Peer groups The community
Business men and traders Factories Plantation farms
Others specify
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Section C: Reasons for Increased Child Labour in Families
- In your own view, what is the current state of child labour in your community?
Increasing Decreasing Not charging
- What are the reasons for the increasing rates of child labour in your community?
| Reasons | Tick | Tick | |
| Weak labour laws | Poverty and economic hardships | ||
| Natural disasters | Adult illiteracy and ignorance | ||
| Family domestic violence | Gender differences and inequalities | ||
| Weak public education sector | urbanization and urban informal sector | ||
| Rural and agriculture dominance | Delinquency, permissiveness/peer pressure | ||
| Irresponsible parents/child neglect | Increasing demand for cheap labour | ||
| Religious factors | Imperfect and inefficient labour market | ||
| Civil wars and armed conflicts | HIV/AIDS and orphan-hood | ||
| Limited coverage and exposure | Urbanization and urban informal sector | ||
| socio-cultural norms and traditions | High population growth and large families |
Others specify
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Section D: Effects of Child Labour
- Do you agree that child labour negatively affects child growth and development?
Yes No Not sure
- If yes, in what ways? (Tick whichever is appropriate)
| Effects | Tick | Effects | Tick |
| v education levels and school drop-outs | Vicious cycle of poverty | ||
| Psychological harm and abuse | physical abuse and harm | ||
| dislike for work in adulthood high morbidity and mortality rates | Exposure to traumatic events | ||
| juvenile delinquency and moral decline | Early girl child marriages | ||
| Child sexual abuse | Health hazards | ||
| Increased cases of child sacrifice | Family disintegration Religious factors |
Other (specify)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- How does child labour affect the family and community
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- How does child labour affect the nation and economy
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- Who is responsible for fighting child labour in your community?
Labour Unions Community Government Police
NGOs and Civil Parents Labour Unions
- As a police officer, what have you done to stop child labour in your community?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION
APPENDIX III: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR CHILDREN
- What is your name?
- How old are you?
- Do you go to school?
- If yes. what is the name of your school?
- In which class are you?
- If you do not go to school, why?
- How do you understand the concept of child labour?
- What kind of activities do you engage in at home?
- How do you balance work and school?
- Which forms of child labour exist in Kira Municipality?
- Who are the major victims of child labour in Kira Municipality?
- Who are the key promoters of child labour in your community?
- What are the reasons for the increase in the rate of child labour in your community?
- How is child labour harmful on the growth and development of a child?
- How does child labour affect the family and community as a whole?
- How does child labour affect the entire country and economy?
- Which parties are responsible for fighting child labour in your community?
- What measures can be taken to curb child labour in the community?
THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND COOPERATION
APPENDIX IV: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR PARENTS
- How old are you?
- Do your children go to school?
- If they do not go to school, why?
- How do you understand the concept of child labour?
- What kind of activities do children engage in at home?
- How do they balance work and school?
- Which forms of child labour exist in Kira Municipality?
- Who are the major victims of child labour in Kira Municipality?
- Who are the key promoters of child labour in your community?
- What are the reasons for the increase in the rate of child labour in your community?
- How is child labour harmful on the growth and development of a child?
- How does child labour affect the family and community as a whole?
- How does child labour affect the entire country and economy?
- Which parties are responsible for fighting child labour in your community?
- What measures can be taken to curb child labour in the community?
THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND COOPERATION
