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SCHOOL HYGIENE AND GIRLS ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AT KAMPALA DISTRICT  

CHAPTER ONE

 1.0 Introduction

This chapter provides the historical, theoretical, conceptual and contextual perspectives, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives, and research questions, significance of the study and the scope of the study and the justification of the study.

• Historical Background

Hygiene programs have been in existence since the beginning of compulsory schooling in the latter half of the 19th century. Then, pioneers such as Chadwick, Howard and Simon argued that developing policies to change the social and physical conditions in which people lived provided significant improvement in health (Deschenes et al, 2003) as quoted in (Okech, 2012).

There was need to align Hygiene in order to obtain healthy and successful school communities. It was observed that schools that worked purposely towards enhancing mental, social, emotional and physical health of their students frequently reported higher academic achievements, greater efficiency and development of both positive school climate and a school community culture that promoted and enhanced students’ growth. The genesis of health curricular in many schools was the work of Clement Duke on school hygiene emphasizing hand washing, toileting and use of uncontaminated water (Duke, 1885) as quoted in(Okech, 2012).

According to UNICEF (2015) in a study in Indonesia most of the schools in rural areas that had poor hygiene were found to have poor performance amongst the pupils in addition to that the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80% of all sicknesses and disease in the schools is attributable to poor hygiene while Agarwal, Kimondo, Moreno & Tinker, (2016) indicates that poor hygiene in secondary schools worsens the poor performance of female students a giants their male counter parts.

Emphasis on school hygiene has been encouraged by many schools across African continent, according to (male, 2018) most of the schools in northern Nigeria experience challenges due to improper hygiene and some of these include lack of proper latrines and untidy dining area this causes stomach diseases to the people.

According to Ahmed & Abimbola, 2011; Umar, (2011) Poor teaching methods adopted by teachers at senior secondary school level in Nigeria have been identified as one of the major factors contributing to poor academic performance of girls.

In the 2011 KCSE examination results, it was noted that most girl performed poorly in examination In addition, the results revealed that the general girls’ performance in most districts was poor with a mean of 4.1 which was attributed by the poor performance in most subjects (D.E.O, Kisii Central, 2012).

According to MOEVT (2011) girls’ poor academic performance is one of the major problems in Tanzania. While the problem of girls’ academic performance exists in most countries, including developed countries, it is even extreme in developing countries like Tanzania. In turn, poor academic performance has become one of the greatest obstacles against girls’ opportunity to access higher education and good employment.

In Uganda, the decline of girls’ academic performance has been one among the major topics of discussion among educators, politicians, administrators and parents. Different reports have indicated that the standard of girls’ academic performance has persistently been poor from primary school level to the tertiary level (Daily monitor Thursday February 9 , 2012)

In an effort to enhance better hygiene amongst the According to WHO (2010), pit latrines are the most commonly used facilities for disposing human waste in developing countries, however some public places like schools in Uganda do not have adequate necessary hygiene facilities. Studies indicate that the percentage of people using latrines as a means of enhancing proper hygiene in some part of East Africa is as follows: Kenya 30%, Uganda 60%, Tanzania 77%, and Ethiopia 7%. Sanitation service is much lower when compared with corresponding coverage on other African countries which ranges between 30-50%.

Hygiene in Uganda has been traditionally accorded low priority in national development. It has been often marginalized and rarely talked about in national debates. Equally, individuals and the private sector have not accorded hygiene priority. Other consequence, school hygiene has previously suffered inadequate political and public support, lack of legislative and policy guidelines, poor technology choice, inadequate resources allocation (human, financial and material) as well as inadequate corroboration and coordination among all concerned parties (Ministry of Health, 2012).

1.1.2 Theoretical background

Theoretical Framework of the Study This study will be guided by expectancy theory of motivation developed by Victor Vroom. This theory rests the assumptions that motivation is conscious process in which decisions lawfully related to psychological events that occur contemporaneously with behavior, and those forces in the individual and environmental combine to determine behavior. Vroom explained that is a product of three factors which he referred to as valence, expectancy and instrumentality. Valence referred to the strength of a person’s preference for a particular outcome such as reward. For example if a teacher strongly wants a promotion has a high valence for that teacher. The same case could apply to a girl student in her pursuit to achieve a good performance at UNEB. An outcome is positive if the students (girls) attain it but it is negative when a student (girl) failes to attain it.

Another factor is expectancy. This is the probability that a particular action or effort would lead to a particular performance. The specific outcomes attained by a person are dependent not only on choices that the person makes but also on events beyond his/her control. For instance, a teacher might not be a hundred percent 8 certain that the success of his or her student in UNEB examination would be a hundred percent since this depends on a number of factors beyond his or her control. Expectancy is thus, an effort or performance probability. Therefore, the therefore the academic performance of girls depends on a number of factors and performance probability.

On the other hand, instrumentality is also the probability that performance would lead to a desired reward (outcome). It represents the belief that reward would be received once the task had been accomplished. Therefore positive academic performance will motivate the girls and that will them students accomplish the task in school.

The core of expectancy theory relates to how a person perceives the relationship between effort, performance and reward. Positive performance academic performance would be seen by students (girls) as success in their future life and negative academic performance would be seen as failure and no future prospects. Expectancy theory will be used to explain school hygiene and girls academic performance

This is because of reward outcomes expected at the end of the process. Though the girls/students high academic performance in schools is influenced by schools hygiene, the reward expected as an outcome.

1.1.3 Conceptual background

This section presents the definitions of the key terms in the study; Academic performance is the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their short or long-term educational goals (Vervloed et al.,2013).

Good school hygiene at school is meant that every student should have ready access to a convenient and well maintained facility for the safe disposal of human waste, suitable anal cleansing materials, most important the means to effectively wash hands with soap after defecation must be provided and used (Waterkay, 2000).

Poor school hygiene can cause distress, women and girls in particular face problems of distance, lack of privacy and personal safety. Poor sanitation is also a serious threat to the cleanliness of the environment and the water resources used for the supply of drinking water.

1.1.4 Contextual background

According to the hygiene of schools have instrumental effects on the well being of students. Schools with good hygiene tend to produce students with sound mind that are able to reason.

Further asserts that most of the schools in urban parts of Tanzania that has better facilities and good hygiene tend to perform better than the rural schools. Hygiene facilities in schools tended to lead to irregular school attendances and school drop outs this led to poor performance among girls in schools.

According Damola et al.,(2016).) school hygiene facilities in schools like toilets, bathrooms and are essential for gill to stay in schools, schools which donot have these sanitation forces female students to absent themselves from schools something that affects their academic performance in the long run

Performance of girls has been poor as compared to their male counter parts in most of Kampala schools. Its against this Background that this study intends to investigate into school hygiene and girls academic performance at Kampala district .

1.2 Statement of the problem

Several factors have been identified as responsible for the poor academic performance of girls in secondary schools. These factors include discrimination, societal values and norms, religious, psychological, attitudinal and interest levels of student (Brotman & Moore, 2008).

Academic performance, which is measured by the examination results, is one of the major goals of a school. It has been revealed that girls’ poor academic performance is a worldwide phenomenon, and that the problem is severe in Uganda. Factors that range from the educational system, pedagogical, economic and socio-cultural factors are frequently associated with the problem of girls’ poor academic performance in Uganda. While the problem of girls’ poor academic performance is reported to prevail in Uganda different studies has been conducted to examine the students’ academic performance on but non of the studies has been carried out on influence of school hygiene on girls academic performance.

Although some of such studies have addressed on academic performance, they have not quite paid attention on those factors with exclusive effect on girls; as opposed to those factors that affect both boys and girls. Therefore there is still a knowledge gap.

Basing on the above this study therefore intends to investigate into influence of school hygiene on girls academic performance.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The purpose of study is to investigate into influence of school hygiene on girls academic performance.

1.4 Objectives of the study

1. To investigate the influence the presence of toilet on girls academic performance.
2. To analyze the influence of clean school environment on girls academic performance.
3. To investigate the strategies of improving the academic performance of girls.

1.5 Research Question

1. What is the influence the presence of toilet on girls academic performance?
2. What is influence of clean school environment on girls academic performance?

• What are the strategies of improving the academic performance of girls?

1.6 Scope of the study

This will include, content scope, time scope and geographical scope

1.6.1 Content scope

The study will cover the influence of school hygiene on girls academic performance.

1.6.2 Time scope

The study will cover a period from February to December 2018

1.6.3 Geographical scope

Geographically, the study will be conducted in Kampala district.

1.7 Significance of the study

• (i) The study will help the ministry of education of Uganda in making improvement in education systems so as to help in the improvement on the academic performance of girls.
• (ii) The study will enable the government of Uganda develop different ways of improving academic performance of students in Uganda.
• (iii) The study will enable future academicians have knowledge regarding the benefits of girls education.
• (iv) The study will also provide information on the challenges faced by girls in studying in secondary schools.
• (v) The study will also add information on the existing literature regarding the different ways of enhancing better academic performance.

1.8 Definitions of key terms

Performance in the sciences: Refers to the level of a student‘s work effort in learning, understanding and applying the subject matter in science subjects’ examinations.

Good performance by a student in science exams entails 17 attaining two to four Principal passes (2-4 PPs) at A-level, which makes him/her qualify for recruitment into a degree course at the university.

A Principle Pass: In Uganda, this refers to the grade given to scores attained by an A-level student in national examinations. These grades range from A as the highest Principal pass of six points to E as the lowest Principal pass of two points (UNEB, 2012).

Gender: Refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women, while sex refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women. In this study, gender was used as a variable that is assumed to influence the participation of boys and girls in science subject options.

Gender Equity: It refers to making provision for the more marginalized gender groups with respect to rights to social goods and amenities such as education.

1.9  Conceptual frame work

  Independent Variable                                                               Dependent Variable       

                                                     Extraneous Variables

Source: The Researcher

CHAPTER TWO

 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter includes the views of other scholars in line with study objectives; this will specifically include; the influence the presence of toilet on girls academic performance in biology, the influence of clean school environment on girls academic performance in biology and the strategies of improving the academic performance of girls in biology.

2.1.0 Influence of the presence of toilet on girls academic performance

Hygiene is a factor that may affects girls’ academic performance. Sanitation systems include toilets, drainage and sewage system, and waste materials systems. If a school has no proper sanitation system, it may affect girls’ academic performance. For example, Kassimoto, (2008) points out that inadequate and poor latrine structures have previously been reported to be one of the causes of girls’ poor performance. This problem prevents girls from enjoying their rights to education.

According to Onoria (2009), the issue of sharing toilets between both sexes has made many girls for fear of their privacy to return back home after lunch time so that they can use toilets in their respective homes, he further asserts that in most of the Indian schools girls do not stay in schools all day because there are no toilets in some secondary schools.

During the menstruation periods most girls drop out of schools temporarily until their menstrual cycle is finished that is when they return back to schools, this affects their academic performance mostly in science subjects because these subjects needs a lot of concentration and time (Heckman, Humphries, & Kautz 2014).

Difference between schools is what distinguishes one school from the other leading to variations in interactions and practices, Kunje, Selemani-Meke and Ogawa (2009) further assert that that even though a school may be distinct and have its own culture, culture tends to be gender segregative in nature, this implies that most often it is skewed towards a particular gender, class, race, power and so on. This she further explained as leading to the formation of gender regimes within school cultures as found in other institutions of the social structures of the society especially in the use of toilets were women are not given priority in the use of toilets this in the modern schools systems has affected the academic concentration of female gender.

However, in Otieno (2008) review on gender and science argued that such depiction of male dominance in science within the context of the school are almost eroding and becoming a thing of the past as there are a good representation of female teacher and science curriculum reflecting gender equity.

2.1.1 Influence of clean school environment on girls academic performance

In spite of the importance and popularity of better academic performance among Nigerian students, performance at senior secondary school level has been poor (Ahmed, 2008). The implication of this failure in education is that Nigeria may have shortages of manpower in science- and technology-related disciplines. This may affect Nigeria’s vision to become one of the 20 industrialized nations in the world by year 2020.

Byoung-suk, K. (2012) stated that children need safe, healthy and stimulating environment in which to grow and learn. During the school year, children can spend 6 to 8 hours at the school where the location of a place plays a significant/critical role in child development. More of the time is spent in the school yard or travelling to and from school. This condition requires careful planning and designing to optimize experiences that support education, health and stewardship.

The favourable school location provides the necessary stimulus for learning experiences. The children spend most of their time in school, and this school location exerts great influence on the pupils’ in terms of performance through curricular, teaching technique and relationship (Kautz et al., 2014).

Environment plays a critical role in the shaping of a leaner’s character which is critical in the learning process of the students, when students are in a safe environment they are able to learn and understand, however most schools in rural areas are not able to provide the same good learning environment this affects the academic performance of the students especially in science subjects like Maths which requires a good learning environment.

According to Lyons, (2012) for decades, series of studies have suggested the importance of school location on learning, Some of these studies examined locational planning and their attendant consequences on achievement of pupils in schools. The studies were intended to assist education authorities to decide where a particular type of school should be located; the size of a school in each location; whether a new school should be built or otherwise among others.

The (World Bank Guidelines 2012) indicates that the schools environment is necessary to be put into consideration while constructing a school both in a rural and urban setting. Before construction of a school physical aspects like site, type of building, usage, capacity, teachers (numbers, qualification, and age); students which include enrollment in school by age, individual data in age, sex, previous schools, home, location of mode transport, time taken in home/school journey, parental background; Rural and Urban Area Data which include land use administrative map on as large a scale as possible, planning reports, settlement patterns and the likes are required before construction of a school.

2.1.2 The strategies of improving the academic performance of girls

Training of teachers, the quality of education depends on the ability, hard work and dedication of the teacher. If a teacher fails to keep himself in touch with the rapid scientific and educational developments then he would become inefficient and ineffective. It is a fact that the academic qualifications, knowledge of the subject matter, competence and skills of teaching and the commitment of the teacher have effective impact on the teaching learning process, for the teachers of any schools to be effective they must have quality training to enable good performance and improve on productivity of the teachers (Coggshall et al., 2012).

Provision of reading materials to students, Textbooks are also scarce in most of the secondary schools in Africa; this has affected the ability of most of the schools especially in areas of research apart from that the university students suffer from lack of students text books especially those who study science subjects. Though sub-Saharan Africa is the most affected by lack of text books for the schools in Paraguay, only one-quarter of sixth graders had their own mathematics textbook (Yeboah, 2014).

Motivation of teachers, Teacher motivation has become an important issue given their responsibility to impart knowledge and skills to learners. It is argued that satisfied teachers are generally more productive and can influence students ‘achievement, when teachers are motivated they are able to teach with a proper attitude , which enable the students to be in position to understand what is being taught by the teachers (Nyamekye, 2010) , on the same not (Fernandes et al, 2016).  asserts that Motivation guide people‘s actions and behaviors toward achievement of some goals.

Providing meals at schools, improves learners academic performance, Food is important for human being as well as students and is a part of education, when students have meals at school they are able to concentrate during lessons and therefore enhance their academic performance(Ankomah et al., 2012).  The findings by Kaklamanou et al. (2012) stated that students need to feed to actually make them study well and be attentive and manage the responsibility of class. It has been discovered that skipping breakfast can adversely affect problem-solving tasks such as mathematics grades which require problem solving skills.

Provision of better salary, Poor salary is also another challenge that teachers face. Teachers like most civil servants in Tanzania are poorly paid. This becomes a hindrance for them to purchase their own teaching materials or acquisition of new ideas, skills and knowledge by failure in enrolling for further educational programmes including Information and Communication Technology (ICT). With this, the academic and intellectual capacities of teachers and learners are bound to be affected substantially during classroom interaction (Onche, 2015).

Provision of instructional materials to the university students, Provision of instructional to university students is imperative to enhance better academic performance for students, when students are provided with the instructional materials they are able to perform well and be able to learn better and understand what they are being taught in class, Writing on the role of instructional materials in teaching and learning (Makombe et al, 2010).

CHAPTER THREE

 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the procedure the research will use to achieve the objectives of the study. It describe the study’s design, population, sample size and selection, sampling techniques, instruments, data management and analysis, reliability and validity, ethical considerations and limitations.

3.1 Research Design

A descriptive case study design will be used during the study. A descriptive case study has been sought because it gives a chance for in-depth studies. This research design will be used because participants are observed in their natural and unchanged environment this will help the researcher to get accurate information (Benard & Benard 2012). The descriptive research design will also be used because it will give a clear analysis of the situation on the ground (creswell, 2013).

3.4 Population of the Study

The population will comprise of students, teachers and Head teachers. The students are selected to take part in the study because they are the main focus of the study. teachers are selected because they are the key informants in the study for they are the ones who are with the learners at the school, while the Head teachers have been selected because they are conversant with the topic and they are the administrators.

3.5. Sampling

Using Krejcie & Morgan, (1970), a sample size of 70 will be selected among all categories of respondents using stratified, random sampling. This is expected to improve on the reliability of data to be collected in this study.

Categories of respondents

Source: field data (August 2015)

This sample is deemed reasonable because often studies on management are based on small samples as pointed out in the previous studies (Nelson, 1988; Spiro, 2002). According to Sekaran (2000:296) – Sample sizes of larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate.

3.8 Data collection instruments

3.8.1 Interview guide

The study will involve use of interviews where by the researcher will hold verbal communication with the participants and asks open ended questions intended to elicit information or opinion related to academic achievement. This will provide the researcher with an opportunity to ask broad or unstructured questions. It also provides high degree of objectivity, probing and clarifications, therefore it provides detailed data. Since questions are open, they allow individual participants to expound on their opinions and views about girl child students’ academic achievement.

• Self-Administered Questionnaires (SAQs)

This is a collection of items or questions to which a respondent/participant is expected to react or respond usually in writing. Self-administered questionnaires will help the researcher collect a lot of information over a very short period of time because a bigger population is expected to be covered within limited time. It is suitable for the literate population and in this study it will be used on students, administrators and teachers if necessary SAQs allow respondents to consult records. Information needed can be easily described in writing by individual participants giving their own views, opinions, perception and feelings more truthfully since each respondent will be alone when filling-in the questionnaire.

• Documentary analysis

This is a secondary source of data.   The researcher will critically examine secondary sources of data like written documents for instance; class registers, admission books and continuous assessment forms to ascertain the attendance of the girl child and their academic performance in. Documentary sources will enable the researcher to obtain data that are thoughtful in that the informants have given attention to compiling them.

3.9.0 Data Quality Control

This refers to the validity and reliability of the instruments or tools used for collecting data.

3.9.1 Validity of instruments

According to Kakinda –Mbaaga (2000), the validity of an instrument is the degree which it measures the content or what is intended to measure and does so correctly. In other words validity refers to the extent to which the quality of an instrument or tool used in the research is accurate, correct, true, meaningful and right. To determine the validity of the findings, the researcher will use the concept of triangulation, which is the use of multitude of sources. These sources should be able to give related data which is accurate, true and meaningful.

Triangulation is useful for the purpose of providing a means of cross-checking information obtained from various sources. More complete and holistic views of a research outcome will be captured through different techniques. Triangulation is a technique involved in collecting and analyzing data by mixing different methods (Amin, 2005).

3.9.2 Reliability of instruments

Reliability of an instrument or tool used for collecting data is the degree to which the respondents can answer it consistently. Reliable instrument will give the same score even when it is used several times to measure the same variable (Kakinda Mbaaga, 2000) provided the variable has not changed for a given entity. So to test whether a data collection or research instrument is reliable or consistent, a researcher will give or pilot an instrument on a group of participants then after a week, give it again to the same participants and then compare the scores. According to Amin (2005), a perfect reliable instrument has a coefficient alpha of 1.00 meaning that values close to 1.00 are reliable. If the scores are highly correlated or are giving the same facts then instrument or tool is declared reliable, consistent or stable for example, a reliable measure or tool generates the same results whenever it is applied. Validity and reliability are very essential for the effectiveness of any research or test.

3.10 Data Analysis

The data collected will be organized, interpreted to make sense of data and get what it means.  Since the research method to be used is mixed method, it then means analysis of the data will be according to the type of data collected. For qualitative data, the researcher will group data from open ended questionnaire items and interviews. Qualitative research data is presented in text (Words), and then quantified according to the frequency of the same responses.

Open coding will be done-that is assigning of code to represent the core topic of each category of data. Open coding will be done by dismantling texts and distinguishing different themes and concepts found in the data. This will be done in correspondence to discussion guide question. Potential trends and patterns strongly held or frequently aired opinions will be noted.

For quantitative data, it will be categorized under the subsections based on the objectives for the study. The researcher will focus on the preparation of data which involves editing, coding and data entry. After gathering the data the researcher will edit data by coding it. Data editing will involve clearing it up by detecting errors, omissions and correcting the responses to tally the information required by the research. After editing data, the researcher will undertake the process of reducing the data by coding. Data coding involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers so that the respondent’s responses can be group into a limited number of categories. These activities will ensure the accuracy of the data and their conversion from raw form to classified form that are more appropriate for analysis.

Quantitative data will be presented through: tables, pie-charts, line graphs and bar graphs. The representation will be either in a frequency distribution or graphically in form of histogram or frequency polygon, using the statistical package for social science (SPSS version 17) as illustrated by (Orodho, 2009).

3.3 Area of study

The study will be carried out in Kampala district.

3.11 Ethical Considerations

The researcher will acquire a letter of consent from the Dean School of Education, Makerere University seeking consent to carry out research in the sampled secondary school. (Kvale & Brinkman 2009) The interviews will be carried out by briefing participants before the interviews commence and briefing after wards.

During the informed consent, the participants will be informed of the purpose of the research, the expected time of participation, the procedure to be followed and any benefits to the participants. The researcher will not at any point force any participant to participate in the study. Participation will be voluntary. Confidentiality of the information shared will be assured and participants will be kept anonymous through the use of pseudo names. All the data gathered will be used for research purposes only.

3.12 Limitations to the Study

These will be issues beyond the ability of the researcher to control that may affect the internal validity of the study. Because of the short period of the time for the study and constrains of funds, the researcher has opted for cross-sectional study and data collected from the university at that time may not be followed longitudinally therefore making it difficult to estimate changes over time. The researcher will therefore recommend the future researchers to make a follow up of the changes that may take place as per the phenomena observed over time.

3.13 Delimitations of the study

Because of the short time period to carry out research, the researcher will inform the officials at St. Denis Senior Secondary School in advance so that he is able to plan appropriately to avoid colliding with the programs of the university. The researcher will ensure that he budgets for his time appropriately so that he is able to avoid disappointments. The researcher will make sure he carries enough money during the research writing process to avoid disappointments.

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