Research support services

INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL FACTORS ON CHILD RETENTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

ACASE STUDY OF BUSANA S.S, NDEBA S.S, AND LIGHT COLLEGGE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This chapter covers the background of the study, Statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions, and scope of the study, significance of the study and definition of terms.

1.1 Background of the study

Uganda like many other countries across the globe upholds education as a fundamental human right and recognises it as pivotal for the attainment of self‐fulfilment and national development (GoK 2007; MoE 2006; Children Act Cap 586 2001). Education therefore, is frequently touted as the most important factor for achieving sustainable development and used as an important means for changing attitudes and behaviours.

The Hyogo framework for action, which was adopted by 168 nations in January 2005 recognize this and encourages government and civic society to use education which facilitate knowledge and innovation, in order to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels of the nation (Nakileza, 2007). As a result governments have placed enormous resources both financial and human to enhance education in their respective countries (UNESCO, 2010).

However, many gains in secondary education had diminished due to situations of national, international conflicts, natural disasters and extreme poverty (World Bank, 2004). Various disasters have seriously affected education systems today and will continue to have a negative impact in future due to the effects of globalization and climate change (Lavell, 2007). The number of weather-related disasters continues to rise.

The supply side of school attendance affects the prospects for attending schools which is determined by the availability of schools. Rural livelihoods are therefore closely associated with lower rates of education attainment especially in many parts of the rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Girls who come from poor households and rural areas have more barriers in accessing education, especially secondary education due to lack of schools as well as traditional and cultural beliefs.

Cultural attitudes which encourage early marriages and discourage the investment in girls through offering them an education (United Nations 2009: 20). In Uganda, rural vs. urban disparities in educational attainment are also well pronounced. According to the Uganda Demographic and Health Survey of 2006, out of all males interviewed, 26.5% living in urban reported they had at least some secondary schooling as opposed to 24.6% that were rural dwellers. For females, 10.6% of those living in urban areas had had some secondary schooling, while only 6.7% of their rural counterparts reported to ever joining secondary school (Uganda Bureau of Statistics and Macro International 2007). Historically, the rural poor in Uganda have always had challenges in accessing education. This can be partly attributed to the fact that the first schools which were set up by missionaries were in urban areas and those areas with rich soils and favorable climates, therefore the rural population since they have strong cultural attitude especially one which teaches aims at grooming up children to mature and take of family roles like taking care of the old parents (Syngellakis et al. 2006 & Nakabugo et al. 2008).

Uganda’s education system of schooling follows a system where between the ages of 6-12 years, a child attends primary school for 7 years culminating in the primary leaving education certificate national exam. It is this level that has been targeted for free and compulsory schooling under the (Universal Primary Education) UPE programme by the Ugandan Government. After primary school are O-levels, comprised of four years of secondary schooling for pupils between the ages 13-16years old progressively senior one to four. After this level one can opt for A-levels of 2 more years of secondary schooling and then another four years of university or college schooling depending on ability and interest. Alternatively, there are tertiary colleges where one can also enrol in (Syngellakis et al. 2006).

The most common reasons for high drop-out rates in Uganda, according to Uganda Census (1998) are associated with students’ lack of interest in studies, pregnancies, early marriages, school fees, child employment, sickness, dismissals, and other reasons which account for about 17%. Basing on this back ground therefore this study intends to investigate into the influence of cultural factors on child retention in secondary schools with specific reference to Kayunga district.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The government of Uganda further implemented the USE scheme in 2007 as a boost to the UPE scheme implemented in 1997. Under the USE scheme children who would have successfully completed the primary level are admitted and do not need to meet the tuition fees like their counterparts enrolled in non USE schools but are supposed to meet the non tuition costs like books, school uniforms, other scholastic materials. This implies that children, who could have hitherto dropped out of school due to inability to pay the user fees, will be enrolled and retained. This came as a result of having realized that tuition was one of the major obstacles to enrolment and retention in secondary education for girls. According to an Education Sector Performance Report, there has been remarkable increase in enrolment of students, including girls, into secondary education in USE’s first year of implementation; most schools under the USE programme have doubled enrolment rates even though with financial constraints, it is yet too early to tell how sustainable this project will be (Alowo 2007).

However despite of the USE programme the enrolment levels of the schools in kayunga and worse of all their retention is still far much lower than the schools in kampala and wakiso , this has puzzled the management of schools in kayunga this study therefore intends to investigate into influence of cultural factors on child retention in secondary schools with specific reference to Kayunga district.

1.3 Objectives of the study

1.3.1 General objective

The overall purpose of this study is to establish the influence of cultural factors on child retention in secondary schools

Specific objectives

To examine the factors that influence student retention in secondary schools.
To identify challenges to students retention in secondary schools.

To identify the various cultural factors that influence student retention secondary schools.

1.4 Research Questions

What are the factors that influence student retention in secondary schools.
What are challenges to students retention in secondary schools.

What are the various cultural factors that influence student retention secondary schools.

1.0 1.6 Scope of the Study

1.6.1 Study Scope

The study will cover the factors that influence student retention in secondary schools, strategies aimed at retaining pupils in school so as to complete the primary cycle and the various cultural factors that influence student retention secondary schools.

1.6.2 Geographical Scope

The study will be carried out at Kayunga district with specific reference to the schools of Busana , Ndeba S.S and light college schools.

1.6.3 Time scope

The period of data to be considered in the organization will be from 2012-2016 and period of body of knowledge in reviewing literature will be from 2000-2016, while the study will be carried out from April to October 2016.

2.0 1.7 Significance of the Study

The study will assist future researchers with enough information regarding the different cultural factors that influence student retention in secondary schools.
The study will also enable the government make informed decisions regarding on the different ways of students retention in secondary schools.

The study will also enable the different secondary schools with enough information regarding different ways on how to increase the rate of student retention in secondary schools

The study will also be beneficial to the donors with enough knowledge on how to increase on the rate of retention of students in different secondary schools and with different strategies to retain children.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses what various scholars have written about influence of cultural factors on child retention in secondary schools but with specific reference to the factors that influence student retention in secondary schools, identify challenges to students retention in secondary schools and the various cultural factors that influence student retention secondary schools.

2.1 Factors that influence student retention

According to MGLSD (1999) addressing of gender concerns in national policies plans and programmes are culturally determined. The cultural practices of considering sex as sacred hinders openness to sex education in schools. These deny the girls vital information during puberty and hence affect their concentration and at worse may drop out of school in the absence of adequate counseling. Therefore such influences may be partly held responsible for children’s early sexual behavioral and and drop out of schools.

Another area to look at is the early girls’ maturity compared to boys’. At school, this has a direct relationship with their patience and seriousness with homework. Also girls compared to boys have less disciplinary and attention problems. Ultimately, this behavior for girls implies reduced indirect costs in terms of time and effort for households. Additionally, it is likely that the changes in the marriage market could have contributed to reducing the promale education gender gap in Bangladesh since the educated girls fetch more returns upon marriage than the uneducated. This explains why parents now educate their daughters because this is valued in the marriage market, and its achievement makes girls assured of wellbeing (Shafiq, 2009; 140).

A study by Shafiq shows that a pro-male educational gender gap still exists in Bangladesh, despite its level of economic development and cultural change. One reason for the phenomenon is that household returns to investing in girls’ education are less than the returns of investing in boys’ education (2009), parents in mostly view educating girls as a waste of resource therefore many young girls drop out of school.

In this regard it is likely that poor households may uphold this gender gap in relation to monetary returns to education and respond by spending less on girls’ education compared to that of boys. It is argued that girls’ future earnings are enjoyed by their husband’s family when they get married compared to boys who provide financial support to their parents during their old age.

Effects of poverty have a heavy toll on girls’ retention in secondary school and many factors influence their attitudes which hinder interest in education. ‘When children see parents stressing, they lose interest and opt to drop out’, (Graham Brown, 1991; Njeuma, 1993). ‘High costs of education make parents divert vision of girls to domestic tasks’, (Lloyd and Gaze-Brandon, 1992; Prouty and Summare, 1994).

The Bristol study defines child poverty as severe deprivation of basic human needs such as education, information and access to services (schools, medical facilities) (UN, 1995). This definition seems to visualize poverty as deprivation of both household resources (material) and nonmaterial resources (knowledge) that makes life subsistent or unbearable. In this sense, it is implied ‘poverty is a product of multiple conditions. (Stromquist, 1999: 3). Apart from the independent variables whose lack leads to poverty, exogenous forces, such as socio-cultural factors, which encourage gender inequality in the distribution of material and nonmaterial resources, may be more influential in causing poverty to the girl child. Poverty may therefore be said to be the lasting product of social relations that have been established on the basis of profound inequalities, (Stromquist, 1999: 3).

In countries like Bangladesh several initiatives have been put in place that have reduced the direct cost of educating girls in rural areas, leading to increased school enrolments and achieving literacy. These include food for education, free primary education, female secondary school assistance program and several NGO initiatives. Household have positively responded to these cost reductions. These interventions, however, have helped more of girls than boys.

The school construction initiatives have provided households with safe education and a conducive environment for socialization and reduced transportation costs for their daughters, (Shafiq, 1009;139).

Training manpower , In this regard governments of member countries struggle to fulfil the above goals as a condition and also to reap the benefits. Secondary education plays a role in stimulating UPE by increasing demand for higher education which enhances primary school completion and consequently stimulates government to expand facilities. For instance constructing more schools within a reasonable distance reduces transport cost and increases parental commitment to educate their children especially girls. In addition secondary education completion provides manpower needed to run primary schools such as teachers, head teachers and other support staff. Availability of well trained staff has an impact on retention at all levels of education especially the female staff act as role models. Having considered skilled staff in educational attainment, similarly girls’ secondary education yields benefits that are enjoyed by the whole society

2.2 Challenges to students retention in secondary schools

In almost all developing countries, school dropout or low completion rates have been a subject of interest to academics, researchers, and policy makers for a long time. According to the Poverty Status Report (PSR, 2005), the phenomenon of high school dropout rate continues to pose a big challenge to the successful implementation of national policies. Although the findings of various studies differ depending on the peculiar country specific situations, rural- urban divide, gender bias, and distance to school appear to be the most common elements in all the studies. In this section we review the findings of some of the studies pertaining to drop out rates at various grade levels at household levels with greater emphasis on Uganda.

The study by Holmes (2003) found out that overall; females receive less education than males, and they tend to dropout, or are withdrawn earlier for both economic and social-cultural reasons. The study furthers argues that the opportunity cost of sending female children to school in rural areas, where girls are married quite early, is high because benefits of their schooling will not accrue to their parental household. Similarly Kasente, (2004), Kakuru, (2003) explain how early marriages influence children’s dropping out of school especially as regards the girl child as it is perceived by parents that marrying off the girl child is an escape route from poverty. Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment (UPPAP, 2000) indicates that marrying off girls would benefit her family in terms of attaining bride price.

Odaga and Heneveld (1995), further note that parents worry about wasting money on the education of girls because there are most likely to get pregnant or married before completing their schooling and that once married, girls become part of another family and the parental investment in them is lost this therefore perpetuates parents discouraging the girl child from continuing with school.

Findings with regard to the impact of parent’s education on schooling of children show that the children of more educated parents are more likely to be enrolled and more likely to progress further through school. Holmes, (2003) shows that this impact differs by gender, the education of the father increases the expected level of school retention of boys, and that of the mother’s enhances the educational attainment of girls. Similarly other studies by Behrman et al., (1999) and Swada and Lokshin (2001) reported a consistently positive and significant coefficient of father’s and mother’s education at all levels of education except at secondary school level.

United Nations Children Education Fund (UNICEF, 1999); MOES, (1995); Government of Uganda (GOU, 1999) Horn (1992); all demonstrate that Parental decisions do affect children retention. Students whose parents monitor and regulate their activities, provide emotional support, encourage independent decision making and are generally more involved in their schooling are less likely to dropout of school (Astone and McLanalan, 1991; Rumberge et al., 1990; Rumber 1995; Odaga and Heneveld, 1995; and Russel, 2001). Taking into account of the gender dimension of dropouts, UNICEF, (2005) notes that girls are more likely to dropout of school than boys and that pupils whose mother’s have not attained any level of education will most likely dropout of school.

Russel, (2001); Bickel and Pagaiannis, (1988); Clark, (1992); and Rumberger, (1983) demonstrate that communities can influence dropout rates by providing employment opportunities during school. While some researchers have found out that work can contribute to a student dropping out, others have showed that student employment begins to correlate with dropping out when the student regularly works over 14 hours per week (Mann 1986, 1989). Other research place the critical level for employment higher, at 20 hours per week (Winters 1986), with the likelihood of dropping out increasing with the number of hours worked.

In another study by MoES (2001), the rates of drop out in all government-aided schools for girls and boys are almost equal. The total number of male dropouts for 2001 was 164,986 (50.6%), while that of females was 160,932 (49.4%) giving a national total of 325,918. In an account for the gender disparity in primary school drop out, Nyanzi (2001) put forward that marriage, pregnancy and sickness are major causes of drop out among girl children while amongst the boys, they include; jobs, lack of interest dismissal and fees.

2.3 Various cultural factors that influence student retention

Research has shown that there are not only economic advantages for individuals who obtain college degrees in comparison to those with high school diplomas only, but also increased well-being in terms of health and civic engagement (Day and Newburger 2002; Dee 2004; Ross and Wu 1996). Thus, access to college and college retention are important areas of focus when considering education and its impact on well-being.

Kuh and Love (2004) found that students who made cultural connections through social groups that reflect their culture of origin were more likely to persist in higher education. While such groups may form organically and informally, universities may also foster and create such opportunities to connect.

The cultural integration of minority students may be better understood through the recognition of the power dynamics between dominant and minority cultures in college. Tierney (2004) proposes that students should not be required to leave their identity at home while furthering their education. Tierney’s model of persistence suggests that students need to be provided with the cultural capital necessary to succeed in an educational system where barriers to persistence and integration exist for minority students. Pidgeon (2008) builds on the work of Tierney and calls for institutions to “validate Indigenous capital, epistemologies” (p. 353). In institutions where mainstream culture and values dominate, indigenous understandings and worldviews are often excluded from notions of success in higher education and corresponding retention theories.

Benham (2006) echoes this need to reaffirm indigenous knowledge and finds that successful educational models incorporate cultural identity and cultural capital. Theoretical frameworks that consider factors related to cultural and social capital in general are growing in studies of student retention (see Wells 2008, Astin 1991, Teranishi et al. 2004, Berger 2000).

In addition to academic performance, student attitudes and satisfaction also have an effect on retention and were prevalent themes within the retention literature. Nes, Evans, and Segerstrom (2009) found that dispositional and academic optimism were associated with better motivation and adjustment, reduced drop-out rates, and higher GPA. They concluded that with increased self-efficacy and a “belief in a positive outcome, students can succeed in the academic world, regardless of whether or not they are optimists” (p.1908). Allen et al (2008) also found that students’ college commitment and social connectedness directly affected retention for third-year students in their study.

Academic engagement activities such as undergraduate research were found to have a positive influence on retention. Applying Tinto’s model, Townsend and Wilson (2009) found that the social and academic integration of predominately Caucasian students in their study were affected by “university size, the opportunity to

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This section presents the methodological focus that will guide the researcher. The specific areas will include research design, area of study, sample size, sampling procedure, data collection methods and instruments and data processing and analysis. The section will end with problems to the study.

3.1 Research Design

A descriptive research design will be presented; emphasizing both what is raised in the literature and the opinions of respondents about the influence of cultural practices on child retention in secondary schools.

3.2 Study Area

The study will be carried out at Kayunga district. The place is considered ideal because it is a district were students are not passing well and the percentage getting first grade in UCE is still very low when compared to Wakiso and Kampala.

3.2 Study Population

The study population will include Head teachers, teachers and pupils in the secondary schools of Busana S.S, Ndeba S.S and Light college. During the study the researcher will sample Head teachers, support staff, teachers and students.

3.3 Sampling Design

The researcher will use purposive sampling technique. This technique has been chosen by the researcher to save time in selection of Head teachers and teachers. While the researcher will use random sampling technique to select students , this will be used because it is the best technique for elimination of bias in selection of respondents.

3.4 Sample Size

The sample size will be 60 which will constitute of Head teachers , support staff and teachers this population has been selected because they are belied to have proper information regarding the influence of cultural practices in child retention in secondary schools.

3.5 Data Collection Instruments

The major instruments for data collection will be questionnaires and interview guide. Surveys will be just one part of a complete data collection and evaluation strategy.

The questionnaire will provide respondents with ample time to comprehend the questions raised and hence, they will be able to answer factually.

3.5.1 Questionnaires

The questionnaire will be used to collect quantitative data. The researcher will administer the questionnaires to Head teachers, support staff, teachers and students, which will be designed basing on study objectives and questions. Respondents who could read and write will fill the questionnaires themselves. The questionnaires will be close ended and will be considered convenient because they will be administered to the literate and its anonymous nature will fetch unhindered responses.

3.5.2 Interviews

Qualitative data will be collected from the informants using interviews. The interview guide will be structured. The interviews will be held with Head teachers, and take approximately thirty to sixty minutes. These will be noted to be the best tools for getting first hand information /views, perceptions, feelings and attitudes of respondents. Both formal and informal interviews will be used to get maximum information from the different respondents to participate in the research.

3.6 Reliability and Validity of data

Data analysis in this study will focus on data validity and reliability. To establish the validity of the questions, pre-testing will be done amongst the selected categories of respondents. Their comments will be incorporated in the final instruments to suit the data requirement of the study. The final amended research instruments will be reviewed jointly by the researcher and the supervisor. Reliability will be checked using the test –retest practice advocated for by Amin (2005). In other words, the questions will be put to course mates and their comments noted, they will be then presented to the respondents and their views will be compared with those of the course mates. On receipt of the questionnaires, manual editing will be done, followed by coding. Frequency count of different variables will be done and this will give the number of occurrences and percentages out of total occurrences.

3.7 Sources of Data

Both primary and secondary data will be used. Data will mainly from respondents, district documents accessed, and internet and from the published sources of literature.

3.8.1 Primary Data

Primary data is data obtained from direct contact with respondents, through observation and face-to-face interviews. This data, will comprise of all the responses achieved through questionnaires, interviews and observations from respondents.

3.8.2 Secondary data

Secondary data is data which has been collected by individuals or agencies for purposes other than those of a particular research study. It is data developed for some purpose other than for helping to solve the research problem at hand (Bell, 1997). This will comprise of literature related to influence of cultural practices on child retention in relation to the case study. Secondary data will be sourced because it yields more accurate information than obtained through primary data, and it is also cheaper.

3.9 Data Collection Procedures

Upon receiving the University permission to carry out research, the area of study will be visited for purposes of familiarization. The researcher will seek permission with staff and when allowed, to proceed with research, questionnaires will be issued and interviews carried out with the selected staff. Documentary evidence from both primary and secondary sources of data will be considered; taking into account of what is reported.

3.10 Data Processing and Analysis

Quantitative analysis of raw data will be done. Raw data will take a variety of forms, including measurements, survey responses, and observations. Tabular and percentage calculations will be used to list questionnaire responses. Analysis and interpretation of the raw data will be based on the responses and opinions. Qualitative and Quantitative data analysis techniques will be used to manipulate data during the analysis phase to draw conclusions.

3.10 Limitations of the Study

The researcher may be hampered by the following problems.

The respondents may fear to participate in the study fearing that they may be spied on.

The researcher may not have enough money.

The researcher may be faced by the fact that there is limited time to participate in the study.