Human trafficking is a global crime that exploits vulnerable individuals through force, fraud, or coercion for forced labor, sexual exploitation, or other forms of abuse. Despite international efforts to combat it, human trafficking remains a significant challenge, requiring robust legal frameworks and enforcement mechanisms (Stöckl et al., 2021).

According to the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 2018, over 24.9 million people worldwide were victims of human trafficking. The report highlights various forms of trafficking, including forced labor, sex trafficking, and commercial sexual exploitation, occurring both in the private sector and through state-imposed labor. The report also emphasizes that trafficking occurs in every region of the world, with types of trafficking and coercion varying based on local customs and individual circumstances (Kehl, 2020).

Of the estimated 24.9 million victims, the ILO found in 2016 that approximately 20.1 million people were victims of labor trafficking globally. This category includes anyone forced to work or perform services under threats of penalty or harm (Cain & Rothe, 2022). In many cases, victims are forced to work in factories, on farms, or as domestic workers. Among these victims, 9.2 million were men, 10.9 million were women, and 3.3 million were children. Additionally, 4.8 million individuals were victims of sex trafficking, experiencing commercial sexual exploitation worldwide in 2016. This category includes adults who are involuntarily involved in the sex industry and children subjected to commercial sexual exploitation. Of these, 3.8 million were adults, and 1 million were children, with 99% of the victims being women and girls (Okeke, 2021).

Legal frameworks aimed at preventing trafficking, protecting victims, and prosecuting perpetrators vary widely across countries and regions, influenced by socio-economic conditions, political will, and cultural norms (Scrittori, 2023). Countries with comprehensive anti-trafficking laws that criminalize all forms of trafficking, provide victim protection, and promote preventive measures tend to have stronger legal frameworks. Developing and implementing national action plans and strategies are also crucial components (Gilani, Khan, & Ali, 2022).

Collaboration among countries through international treaties like the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (Palermo Protocol), strengthens the legal framework’s effectiveness by facilitating extradition, information sharing, and mutual legal assistance (Judge & Dole, 2022). Adequate training, resources, and coordination among law enforcement agencies are essential for effectively investigating trafficking cases, arresting perpetrators, and securing convictions. Specialized units and task forces focused on trafficking can improve enforcement outcomes (Angkasa et al., 2023). Legal frameworks should prioritize victim identification, protection, and access to essential services such as shelter, healthcare, legal aid, and rehabilitation (Ofer, 2019). Victim-centered approaches that prioritize their rights and needs are fundamental to effectively addressing human trafficking (Feldmann, 2023). Prevention efforts, including public awareness campaigns, education initiatives, and targeted interventions in high-risk sectors, are vital in reducing vulnerability to trafficking and disrupting traffickers’ operations (Reenbaum et al., 2018).

According to Hoff and de Volder (2022), every year, an undisclosed number of individuals enter the international migration system only to find themselves ensnared, exploited, coerced, or otherwise trapped in situations of abuse from which they struggle to escape. Many endure physical captivity, while others face subtle yet potent forms of coercion, such as debt bondage. These individuals become commodities in a global industry worth billions of dollars, often controlled by highly organized criminal networks operating with impunity (Khamzin, Buribayev, & Sartayeva, 2022). The convergence of escalating economic challenges, formidable barriers to legal migration, and internal turmoil has coincided with a noticeable increase in trafficking incidents worldwide. Trafficking, often labeled as the “perfect crime,” yields substantial profits, carries minimal risk of apprehension, and rarely results in prosecution. Virtually no country remains untouched by this increasingly sophisticated and invariably ruthless phenomenon (Jaffe et al., 2022).

In recent years, human trafficking has moved from the fringes to the center of global political discourse. Governments now widely recognize trafficking as a significant income source for transnational criminal networks and a cause of political, social, and economic instability for both nations and individuals (Fabbri et al., 2023). The most notable and rapid changes in response to trafficking have occurred within the legal realm. Just a decade ago, the international legal landscape was dominated by a single, largely overlooked treaty from 1949, with minimal provisions in a few human rights agreements (Akanbi, 2020). Today, trafficking is addressed by an extensive array of international legal frameworks and domestic legislation, alongside numerous non-binding standards ranging from policy guidelines to regional commitments. The extent and depth of this legal transformation are truly remarkable. The global community managed to negotiate a comprehensive agreement to combat trafficking in just two years, and within an additional three years, enough countries ratified the treaty for it to become enforceable (White, 2020).

Uganda has the largest population of unemployed youth on the continent and globally. Currently, 80% of the youth are unemployed, including university graduates, with 90.9% navigating the informal sector due to the scarcity of formal employment opportunities. While unemployment is a stark reality, it is crucial to recognize that it is not the sole driver of trafficking (Offia, 2019). In 2014, Danielle Yaste, a former SIT student, explored the cultural and societal factors fueling human trafficking in Uganda. She identified cultural norms as significant contributors to this issue, a sentiment echoed by participants in her study. Annette Kirabira, founder of RAHAB Uganda, noted that traditional values once encouraged children to seek better education or employment through extended family support. However, Kirabira observed that these values are now being exploited, leading to vulnerabilities that traffickers exploit (Klabbers et al., 2023).

While unemployment and social culture are not the only severe issues causing vulnerability to trafficking, unemployment is a powerful push factor that drives people from the domestic job market to seek opportunities abroad by any means necessary. Push factors for labor migration include severe unemployment, high dropout rates from schools, and lack of ownership of natural resources such as land titles, which is especially rare for youth in Uganda. Pull factors for labor migration include the abundance of jobs and the prospect of better work and pay abroad. For traffickers, the pull factor is that human trafficking is a lucrative business. Second only to drugs and arms trafficking, human trafficking generates approximately $150 billion annually (Kiss et al., 2022).

The Busoga region in Uganda stands out as a high-prevalence area for human trafficking, marked by forced labor, sexual exploitation, and other forms of exploitation. This region faces numerous social and economic challenges, including poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, and gender inequality, making its population vulnerable to human trafficking. It is against this background that this study aims to assess the efficacy of legal frameworks and enforcement mechanisms in addressing human trafficking in Uganda.

1.2 Problem Statement

The prevalence of human trafficking in Uganda, particularly in the Busoga region, highlights the critical need to assess the efficacy of existing legal frameworks and enforcement mechanisms in combating this global crime. Despite concerted international efforts and the development of comprehensive legal instruments like the Palermo Protocol, human trafficking continues to thrive, exploiting vulnerable individuals, especially women, children, and unemployed youth. Factors such as poverty, unemployment, cultural norms, and lack of access to resources significantly contribute to populations’ vulnerability to trafficking. Therefore, there is an urgent need to evaluate the effectiveness of legal measures, enforcement strategies, victim protection mechanisms, and prevention initiatives in addressing the multifaceted challenges posed by human trafficking in Uganda