2.1: Poultry Production
Poultry production is a vital sector in Uganda’s agricultural industry, significantly enhancing human nutrition and food security as a primary source of high-quality protein through eggs and meat (FAO, 2020). Besides contributing to dietary needs, it supplements income from crops and other livestock, reducing dependence on traditional commodities with volatile prices. Furthermore, poultry production has the potential to generate foreign exchange through exports to neighboring countries (MAAIF, 2019).

Poultry also plays a cultural role in social events such as dowries and celebrations. Although relatively new, the poultry industry in Uganda has grown substantially due to increased investments in livestock over the past two decades, leading to a rise in exotic breeds like layers and broilers. However, the industry’s expansion faces challenges, especially as the growing market demand has led to the use of antibiotics for growth promotion and disease management, which raises health and regulatory concerns locally and internationally (Clarke, 2004; Gerber et al., 2007).

2.2: Antibiotics
2.2.1: Definition of Antibiotics
Antibiotics are chemical substances that either kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms while causing minimal harm to the host (Guardabassi, 2008). They may be naturally derived (e.g., penicillin from fungi, tetracycline from bacteria), semi-synthetic (e.g., amoxicillin), or fully synthetic (e.g., sulfonamides) (Guardabassi, 2008). Antibiotics have been widely used in poultry farming since the 1940s to improve health, promote growth, and enhance feed efficiency (Mara, 2001). However, improper use can lead to residues in animal products that pose health risks to consumers.

2.2.2: Classification of Antibiotics
Antibiotics can be classified by their range of effectiveness. Broad-spectrum antibiotics target a wide range of bacteria, both gram-positive and gram-negative, and include drugs like doxycycline and ampicillin (Wang, 2012). Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are effective against specific bacteria types, targeting either gram-positive or gram-negative bacteria, and examples include azithromycin and erythromycin.

2.2.3: Mode of Action of Antibiotics
Antibiotics work by disrupting essential bacterial processes, either killing the bacteria (bactericidal) or inhibiting growth (bacteriostatic). They achieve this through mechanisms like inhibiting cell wall, protein, or nucleic acid synthesis, affecting essential metabolite production, or damaging the bacterial membrane (Wang, 2012).

2.2.4: Common Antibiotics Used in Poultry
Antibiotics like penicillin are commonly used in Ugandan poultry farming to treat diseases and promote growth. However, excessive and uncontrolled usage can result in residues in poultry products, posing risks such as antibiotic resistance and allergic reactions in humans (Mitema, 2001; Donoghue, 2003). Specific antibiotic groups frequently used in poultry include:

• Tetracyclines: Used since the 1940s, tetracyclines inhibit bacterial protein synthesis and are widely used in veterinary medicine for their broad-spectrum activity (Michalova, 2004).
• β-lactams: Comprising penicillins and cephalosporins, β-lactams are crucial in veterinary medicine but may leave residues in food products, causing potential health risks like allergies and promoting resistance (Kowalski, 2007).
• Macrolides: Effective against respiratory infections, macrolides work by inhibiting protein synthesis in bacteria. Resistance to macrolides often occurs via genetic mutation or enzyme production (Riviere, 2009).
• Aminoglycosides: Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as gentamicin and streptomycin, commonly used in animal husbandry, target bacterial protein synthesis (Mingeot, 1999).

2.3: Administration of Antibiotics in Poultry
Antibiotics can be administered individually (e.g., injection) or to entire flocks via drinking water or feed, which is the primary method in poultry farms (Ramatla et al., 2017).

2.3.1: Antibiotic Resistance
Overuse and misuse of antibiotics in poultry have led to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, posing a serious public health concern. Resistance occurs when bacteria survive antibiotic treatments, often passing on resistance genes to other bacteria (Ahmed, 2012). Factors like infection site, antimicrobial concentration, and immune status impact resistance development (Levy & Marshall, 2004).

2.4: Poultry Diseases Treated by Antibiotics
Intensive poultry farming, where broilers are often raised to maturity within 6–12 weeks, relies heavily on antibiotics for disease prevention and control. Common antibiotics such as tetracycline and penicillin are used to treat conditions like air sacculitis, fowl cholera, and infectious synovitis. This widespread use raises concerns about residues in poultry products, which could enter the human food chain (Kaneene et al., 1997).

2.5: Antibiotic Residues in Poultry Meat
Antibiotic residues refer to active compounds and their metabolites that remain in animal products from treated animals (Doyle, 2006). Mismanagement in observing withdrawal periods or inappropriate antibiotic dosing leads to residue accumulation in poultry products, which poses risks of antibiotic resistance and allergic reactions in humans (Stobberingh, 2000).