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 CHANGES IN ABUNDANCE OF ANURAN  LARVAE IN WETLAND RECLAIMED FARMING AREA AS INDICATORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DETORIATION, BUSEGA KAMPALA UGANDA

Wetlands are declining in quality and quantity throughout the whole world; in Uganda, are due to several factors of which agricultural activities are among the main ones; therefore the research examines the detoriation of Busega wetland by agricultural effects using anuran larvae abundance assessment. The wetland is big with more than a half of its reclaimed area filled with agricultural activities of these detoriate the natural environmental status of the wetland, so the research is to examine the problem of the wetland farming activities on the larval population and how the changes in abundance of the population indicate environmental detoriation. The three main objectives were: examining the different agricultural activities in different farming grounds and their effect to the anuran amphibian larvae; determining the water quality in the different farming areas with respect to the type of crop grown and its physical and chemical parameters that affects the anuran amphibian larvae and determining the changes in abundance of amphibian larvae in wetland reclaimed farming areas as indicators of environmental detoriation in the wetland. The researcher hypothesized that there will be different agricultural activities in different farming grounds that affect the anuran larvae, that there will be also a significant change in the quality of water in the different farming areas with respect to the type of crop grown in the wetland and a significant change in the abundance of the anuran amphibian larvae in Busega wetland. Field sampling sites included yam, sugar cane and eucalyptus farming grounds for determining agricultural activities, water quality and changes in abundance of anuran larvae in selected fields about agricultural activities founded were digging of trenches, soil discharge/soil filling, use of chemicals, planting, weeding, pruning and harvesting: these destroy natural habitats of the anuran larvae and others kill the larvae directly and indirectly. The water quality of the different farming grounds were analyzed basing on the temperature, dissolved oxygen, bio-oxygen demand, P^H, electron conductivity, turbidity and depth of the origin from which the water samples were got; findings analyzed by the hydro-lab quanta are represented in the tables 2a, 2b and 2c  in the appendix 1. The number of the larvae was counted for every source of water sample obtained and recorded; the tables; 3a, 3b and 3c shows the count which was made in the field for the anuran larvae in different selected farming grounds of Busega Wetland are presented in the appendix1. It was conclude that different agricultural activities have been carried out in several areas of the wetland for crop production in farming fields in wetland floodplain soils, yams, eucalyptus and sugarcanes fields as the major crops grown, the quality of water in the wetland showed a significant change in relation to the normal water parameters and the larvae population is very minimal compared to other non-detoriated wetlands in Uganda like Nakyetema in Mpigi District. Thus from the perspective of the reduced number of anuran larvae the wetland is undergoing deterioration by agricultural activities sine the assessment of their abundance shows that they cannot hardly survive to an optimal number, therefore there is a need to control extensive use of the wetland for agricultural purposes and put strict laws against wetland reclamation and maximizingthe sustainable use of the wetland without detoriation accompanied by further environmental research on how to improve the wetland’s natural status.

1.0     CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY.

The internationally recognized definition of a wetland comes from the Ramsar Convention held in Ramsar, Iran in 1971 to establish standards for wetlands and promote their protection (Gumm- 2011).The definition agreed upon is that “wWetlands are areas of marsh, fern, peat-land, or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static, or flowing, fresh, brackish or salty, including areas of marine water that do not exceed 6 meters at low tide(Authors??).This definition is similar to the definition set forth by the National Wetlands management and Conservation Policy of 1994 (Gumm -2011), “ a wetland is an area that stay wet long enough for only certain plants and animals to grow even when there is no rain.” Both definitions will be usable and are applicable for this research.

All wetland uses can be divided into four groups; provisional uses, functional uses, cultural uses and regulatory uses; functional uses results of the wetland providing water storage and water distribution due to the shape, scope and size of the wetland; regulatory uses are some of the most expensive water services that a wetland provides for free and include the way the wetland ecosystem becomes a carbon sink absorbing greenhouses gases and other pollutants from the air; cultural uses are rarely utilized in Kampala district but are much more common in rural areas and  include collecting papyrus for crafts and hunting, fishing, and hunting the monitor lizard for its skin for the ngalabi drum; and provisional uses are the most common in Kampala  involving people in the proximity of wetlands taking water, wood, plants and animals from wetlands(Gumm-2011). If provisional services are taken in excess, the wetlands can be degraded and eventually completely destroyed (Gumm -2011).

Wetlands provide water required for irrigated crop cultivation and deposit sediments and nutrients that maintain soil fertility, are a source of papyrus provides income in three ways: the papyrus may be sold by harvesters to artisans such as thatch and mat makers; they may be used to produce rough low cost mats for sale and the harvesters may use the papyrus to produce fine higher-cost mats, wetlands in Uganda are also often used for brick making, and have also been used for fish farming, many of Uganda’s wetlands are used for crop cultivation, which of US Dollars 60,000 economic value as estimated in 2002 (NEMA-2006/2007). Uganda’s wetlands also provide important ecological benefits that reach beyond the region.;theyThey are also the home of globally endangered species including birds such as theShoebill (Balaeniceps rex) and Fox’s weaver (Ploceus spekeoides), and fish species of the Cichlidae family(authors?).and manyMany of these wetlands are an important stopover for largecongregations of migratory water birds (Authors?.)., wetlands can act as a reservoir to storecarbon dioxide, mitigating climate change impacts; national and international visitorsseek out wetlands as tourist attractions and educational opportunities to learn about their unique animals and plants (NEMA-February 2011).

Wetlands provide habitat for amphibians and other wildlife (Knutson et al., 2004; O’Neal et al., 2008), amphibians as a group are much more closely associated with water and wetlands than are most reptiles, birds, or mammals. Most anurans (i.e. frogs and toads) and many caudates (i.e., salamanders and newts) lay their eggs in water, have aquatic larvae, and inhabit forests or other upland habitats as adults, thus their population is much more depending on water than land (Sparling, et al., 2002). One of the key features of amphibians is their biphasic life-cycle, the larvae stage occurs within an aquatic environment while the adult stage occurs in the terrestrial environment and the eggs of amphibians are laid typically in the water and hatch into free-living larvae, thus need habitat areas like wetlands that contain water favoring amphibian larvae development (Hoverman,). However, Amphibians are declining throughout the worldwide due to habitat loss, emergent diseases, and chemical contaminants in the environment (Reeves –2014).

Wetland habitats are often drained and altered to accommodate development of agriculture with devastating effects on local amphibian populations (Alfordet al.-2001)). According to the decline in the number of wetlands as amphibian habitats, across the world varies by region from 33% to more than 90% (Gosselink et al -2007). Globally, 43% of amphibian species are experiencing population declines with habitat loss; which are typically wetlands, as the major contributor (Hoverman et al. -2015).

In Uganda particularly in Kampala District, habitat loss and degrading is caused by the increase in population, industrial development, urbanization in Kampala which has created demand for more space for settlement, industrial and business setups(authors?)., thusThus reclaiming wetlands as the only nearby source of cheap and available land. , theThe population growth leads to an increase in cultivation of the wetlands for agricultural purposes to support the increasing number which also cause wetland deterioration in other areas near Kampala. (The common plants grown in wetlands include sugarcane, yams, eucalyptus and cassava; unfortunately these create an imbalance in the ecosystem of the wetland; also roads and other development projects are also built in wetlands, however they are extremely important for the people of Kampala to have access to markets, education and health care but they are not always built in a way that mitigates flooding, in fact they usually create a wall that blocks water from going where it normally would, the Northern By-Pass is an example of this, and wetlands have also become dumping spaces for people who lack access to waste removal (Gumm-2011­)

Wetlands, particularly seasonal wetlands, are rapidly being converted into rice fields, eucalyptus plantations, sugar cane fields, yams and other forms of agriculture, or for seasonal grazing bylivestock (authors?). Near urban areas, theyare considered prime sites for factories and settlement (Reeves –2014). As people create farm lands, competition increases between farming and others activities like urbanization and settlement leading to farmers reclaim wetlands as a way of increasing farming areas, as a result, water ways, water quantity and quality, and the micro climate have been altered this affects amphibians (NEMA-2006/2007). Loss and degradation of wetland habitats are major contributing factors to the global decline of amphibians, creation and restoration of wetlands could be a valuable tool for increasing local amphibian species richness and abundance (Brown,et al.2015).  As a result, water ways, water quantity and quality, and the micro climate have been altered, and in the peri-urban areas, encroachment for agriculture and settlement,  and over harvesting of plant resources in wetlands have damaged the water purifying capacities of wetlands, putting the ecosystem in an imbalance for amphibian larva (NEMA-2006/2007). It is widely accepted that amphibians are experiencing world-wide declines in abundance and diversity (Alford, et al-1999).Stuart et al estimated more than 2400 of the approximately 5700 species had experienced severe population declines or extinction, and there is little evidence suggesting these trends have improved in recent years (Stuart, et al-2004). During the last century, more than 50% of the world’s wetlands have been lost and agricultural activities have subjected wetland species to increased isolation and decreased quality of habitats, thus as a part of agricultural intensification, the use of pesticides has increased notably, and pesticide residues occur frequently in wetlands making the exposure of wetland organisms to pesticides highly probable (Piha, -2006).

Different people thus have researched on the impact of farming on amphibian habitats loss or destruction; like a research,(Piha, -2006).Although there are existing information and knowledge about amphibian larvae ecology, there are also obvious gaps in environmental stressors on amphibian larvae, the scientific literature on the effects of wetland farming on amphibian larvae does not stretch or extend to the way the farming activities affect the larval population in the habitat(authors?).Therefore this study will be to examine the effect of the wetland farming activities on the larval population and how the changes in abundanceof the population indicate environmental deterioration.

1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT OF THE STUDY

Many of Uganda’s wetlands are used for crop cultivation(NEMA-2006/2007). Uganda’s wetlands face enormous pressures largely from citizens wishing to convert them for agriculture production, the pressures vary by region and location, for instance wetlands in urban areas are likely to be dumping sites for wastes and, in some regions, to be converted for peri-urban agriculture, and wetlands in rural areas are likely to be used when a particular crop such as paddy rice horticultural produce have become major income earners (UNEP/NEMA, 2007).

The principal supply of renewable fresh water for human use comes from an array of wetlands, including lakes, rivers, swamps and shallow ground water aquifers, fish and fishery products are particularly important ecosystems service derived from inland waters, inUganda the declining condition of wetlands has placed the ecosystem service and livelihood of the people who depend on them at risk (NEMA-2006/2007). Drainage of wetlands for agricultural production has been reported since the 1940s, wetlands are cultivated with crops such as sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes, beans, cabbages and sorghum, and also over harvesting of swamps for papyrus and clay have also contributed to wetland degradations (NEMA -2006/2007). Therefore as the population grows; the demand for more agricultural land is expected to increase, in Kampala city, due to rapid urbanization and growing urban unemployment, people are utilizing places unsuitable for development to grow crops,such places include banks of drainage channels and wetlands (Nabulo, et al 2008). In 1991, out of 16.7 million people close to 89% (14.8 million people) lived in areas occupying 8.4million hectares of subsistence farmland; by 2002, the population of Uganda was 24.7 million of whom close to 85% lived in rural areas, the land cover including wetlands has come under pressure for conversion into farm holdings, and the population of illegal settlers in the wetlands is estimated to be over ten thousand with major concentrations being in Kitintale Zone b11, in Nakawa division and Namuwongo Slums in Makindye division(NEMA-2006/2007). As a result, water ways, water quantity and quality, and the micro climate have been altered, and in the peri-urban areas, encroachment and over harvesting of plant resources in wetlands have damaged the water purifying capacities of wetlands, putting the ecosystem in an imbalance for amphibians (NEMA-2006/2007). It is widely accepted that amphibians are experiencing world-wide declines in abundance and diversity (Alford et al, 1999). Stuart et al estimated more than 2400 of the approximately 5700 species had experienced severe population declines or extinction, and there is little evidence suggesting these trends have improved in recent years (Stuart, et al-2004). During the last century, more than 50% of the world’s wetlands have been lost and agricultural activities have subjected wetland species to increased isolation and decreased quality of habitats, thus as a part of agricultural intensification, the use of pesticides has increased notably, and pesticide residues occur frequently in wetlands making the exposure of wetland organisms to pesticides highly probable (Henna Piha, -2006)

Different people thus have researched on the impact of farming on amphibian habitats loss or destruction; like a research, (Piha, -2006).Although there are existing information and knowledge about amphibian larvae ecology, there are also obvious gaps in environmental stressors on amphibian larvae, the scientific literature on the effects of wetland farming on amphibian larvae does not stretch or extend to the way the farming activities affect the larval population in the habitat.Therefore this study will be to examine the effect of the wetland farming activities on the larval population and how the changes in abundanceof the population indicate environmental deterioration.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

                        1.3.1 General Objectivesobjective

The study intends to examineTo determine the effect of the changes in abundance of anuran species amphibian larvae in wetland reclaimed farming areas for eucalyptus growing, and sugar cane growing on the environment in , Busega Lubaga Division.Kampala District,

1.3.2 Specific objectives

• To examine the different agricultural activities in different farming grounds and their effect to the anuran amphibian larvae in Busega wetland, Busega Parish Lubaga Division, Kampala District.
• To determine the water quality in the different farming areas with respect to the type of crop grown and its physical and chemical parameters that affects the anuran amphibian larvae, in Busega wetland, Busega Parish Lubaga Division, Kampala District.
• To determine the changes in abundance of amphibian larvae in wetland reclaimed farming areas as indicators of environmental detoriation in Busega wetland, Busega Parish Lubaga Division, Kampala District.

1.4.HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY

Alternative hypothesis

1. There will be different agricultural activities in different farming grounds that affect the anuran amphibian larvae in Busega wetland, Busega Parish Lubaga Division, Kampala District.
2. There will be a significant change in the quality of water in the different farming areas with respect to the type of crop grown in Busega wetland, Busega Parish Lubaga Division, Kampala District.
3. There will be a significant change in the abundance of the anuran amphibian larvae in Busega wetland reclaimed farming area as indicators of environmental detoriation in Busega wetland, Busega Parish Lubaga Division, Kampala District.

1.5.   SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of the study is to investigate the environmental detoriation in Busega wetland reclaimed areas for farming in Kampala District with reference based from the changes in abundance of the anuran species amphibian larvae. The study is also to examine how the different farming activities in the Busega reclaimed wetland infiltrate the life of the anuran amphibian larvae.

2. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

               2.1         Environmental characteristics of wetlands

It includes permanently flooded areas with papyrus or grass swamps, swamp forests or high-altitude mountain bogs, as well as seasonal flood plains and grasslands (NEMA February 2011), others common plants includeferns,presence of water and flooding regimes (NEMA February 2011).  Wetlands have both fresh waters; like wetland areas on lakes Victoria, Kyoga and George, rivers Nile and Katonga while some have salty waters like wetlands on Lake Katwe, and these having both claysandy soils, they are alsoinhabited by animals like fish (Tilapia sp), crested cranes, snakes, mud fish, turtles, newts and salamanders are among the reptiles and amphibians that live in wetlands and invertebrates, such as crayfish, shrimp, mosquitoes, snails and dragonflies (NEMA, 2005). Wetlands are areas of marsh, ferns, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static, or flowing, fresh, brackish or salty, including areas of marine water that do not exceed 6 meters at low tide ( NEMA- February 2011).

            2.2 Agricultural activities and their effect to the wetlands

In 1964, the total area of wetlands was estimated at 32,000 km2 but by 1999, it had decreased to 30,000 km2, or about 13% of the total area of Uganda (NEMA-2011), preliminary data from the NBSU of the NFA (2008) suggests that Uganda’s wetlands cover, as estimated in 2008, has now been reduced to 26,308 km2, or 11 percent of total land area (MWE, 2011), and the key underlying causes of this decline is the insatiable desire for the population both the rich and the poor to derive livelihoods from the wetlands reclaiming it for agriculture, rice in Eastern Uganda and Vegetables in South Western (Uganda Wetlands Atlas Volume Two 2016), over harvesting of water for irrigation of crops, prompt planting of agro-forestry trees like eucalyptus with a high transpiration rate that drain water from the wetlands at a rate higher than it is recycled in the wetlands (NEMA -2011).

Rice in Uganda, was introduced on a large scale in the 1960’s as a wetland based crop, beginning from the Kibimba Irrigation Scheme, in Eastern Uganda, rice has now spread as a major crop in that region to cover a number of wetlands and this clearing of wetlands for rice has resulted in the loss of biodiversity and a number of wetland functions affecting amphibians (NEMA-2011).The population growth rate of Uganda is at 3.2% rate this poses an enormous challenge on the management of natural resources such as wetlands, therefore the increased population is significantly marked with insatiable desire of both the rich and the poor to derive their livelihoods from the wetlands including desire for farming or agricultural activities for food for both commercial and home use (NEMA-2011).

In urban areas, particularly Kampala, wetlands are seen as the cheapest areas for Agricultural development; many wetlands have been converted to agricultural use, or have gradually been taken over by associated uses, such as cultivation (NEMA-2011).Plants cultivated include; sugarcane, yams and cassava but unfortunately, these plants takea lot of water and do not return nutrients to the system as efficiently as papyrus creating an imbalance in the ecosystem (Gumm-2011).The remaining aquatic habitats are also likely to experience a decrease in quality caused by agricultural intensification (e.g. grazing disturbance, nutrient and pesticide runoff (Declerck et al. 2006).

Agriculture has also been associated with waste discharges that pollute the wetland environment (Walakira, et al, 2011),fertilizer application in the wetland, all can change the P^H of the wetland to a more un natural state (Uganda Wetlands atlas Vol. Two 2016).  In Kampala cultivation, infilling of soil due to agricultural reasons, results in wetlands being drained and new agricultural plants being introduced, this can lead to soil erosion and flooding, infilling is when wetlands are filled with rocks, mud and other materials external to increase on soil for crop planting(Gumm 2011).

In Busega wetland Agriculture has been carried out in several types of (former) wetlands for millennia, with crop fields (Bot,2010),agricultural intensification; the use of pesticides and other agricultural activities has increased notably, and chemical residues of pesticides and herbicides in water occur frequently in wetland(Henna 2006).

Fertilizers and pesticides further degrade the quality of the available water (Falso 2011), fertilizers increase crop yield, yet extensive application leads to groundwater contamination and ecological changes resulting from eutrophication (Rohr et al. 2008).This implies that the majority of water in agricultural water sheds is managed under unnatural flow conditions and is contaminated with nutrients and pesticides (Falso2011).

2.2 Water quality in wetlands

The quality of water is influenced by many parameters many of which are interrelated; pH, turbidity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and electron conductivity, nitrates, COD, BOD, colour, and others (Prasad, et al 2010).

Uganda is a landlocked country in Eastern Africa (Faye et al., 2004) and protection of the environment has been one of the key goals of the Government of Uganda. One of the major economic development avenues in Uganda has been agriculture which has been associated with waste discharges that pollute the environment (Walakira et al 2011). Water pollution is a threat to the sustainability of aquatic ecosystems and water quality (Banadda, E et al., 2009). Developing countries such as Uganda, lack mechanisms and sensitive tools to detect and monitor water quality in wetlands and are therefore, exposed to pollutants (Ochieng  et al -2008).

Wetlands function like natural tubs or sponges, storing water and slowly releasing, pollutants stick to soil particles; in many cases, this filtration process removes much of the water’s nutrient and pollutant load by the time it leaves a wetland and some types of wetlands are so good at this filtration function that environmental managers construct similar artificial wetlands to treat storm water and wastewater (Uganda Wetlands atlas Vol. Two 2016).

The heavy metal concentrations in the wetland waters in Kampala ranges from 20-900 μg/L for Zn, 5-80 μg/L for Cu and 20-100 μg/L for Ni with the lowest concentrations (Nabulo et al 2008)The organic matter content ranges from 3.0±2.3% to 45.8±2.0% in Busega wetland it is mainlycontaminated by Zn and Cu (Nabulo et al 2008).

Factories produce waste that runs into the water damaging the wetlands ecosystem; solid wastes from both factories and individuals in or around the wetland are directed into Kampala wetlands lowering water quality through its parameters (Gumm 2011).

               2.3 Effects of agriculture on the water quality of wetlands 

Changes in water quality, either due to excess nutrients or chemicals from agriculture, modify aquatic speciescomposition and biodiversity (Muñoz-Mas et al, 2019). Excess nutrients from agriculture can cause bad colour and smell, hindering water for drinking(Alavaisha 2020).The natural qualities of water courses have been altered by the impact of various human activities and water uses, most pollution situations have evolved gradually until they eventually became apparent and measurable; many of which are used for crop cultivation (NEMA-2006/2007).

In Kampala city, due to rapid urbanization and growing urban unemployment, people are utilizing places unsuitable for development to grow crops; such places include banks of drainage channels and wetlands (Nabulo, et al 2008).The use of pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture has contributed to water pollution and has led to changes in the nutrient levels in the lake leading to algal proliferation fertilizer application in the wetland also changes the P^H of the wetland to a more unnatural state (Uganda Wetlands atlas Vol. Two2016), the pH ranging from 4.9±0.1 to 7.7±0.2(Nabulo, et al 2008).

                2.4 Amphibian Characteristics

Classification

Kingdom:Animalia

Phylum:Chordata

Class:Amphibia

Order:Anura

The word amphibian comes from the Greek word for “double-life,” referring to the fact that amphibians start life in water breathing through gills before maturing into lung-breathing land animals, although most never stray too far from water and the class Amphibia is composed of only 3 orders, the order Anura, a word that refers to tailless amphibians, includes frogs and toads and are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates of the class Amphibia, belonging to the group Lissamphibia, they inhabit a wide variety of habitats with most species living within terrestrial, fossorial, arboreal or freshwater aquatic ecosystems(Brent R. Whitaker  2020).

Amphibians come in a wide range of sizes and colorings and the largest amphibians, the Chinese and Japanese giant salamanders, can grow to 6 feet long (1.8 meters) and weigh up to 140 pounds (63 kilograms), the smallest include some species of poison dart frogs measuring less than 0.5 inches long (1.3 centimeters) and weighing only a few grams: less than an ounce (Brent R. Whitaker  2020). One thing that most amphibians do have in common is a moist skin, often coated with slimy mucus. Adult amphibians breathe not only through their lungs but also through their skin, and the moisture is necessary for proper oxygen exchange and the life span of amphibians varies widely, from a few months to many years (2020).

Anurans are amphibians that belong to the order Anura: and are frogs and toads, Anurans are among the most diverse groups of vertebrates, with approximately 5,965 species that occur on all of the continents except Antarctica, these have a body plan that is more specialized for movement, adult anurans use their hind limbs to jump on land, and have a number of modifications that allow them to avoid predators, including skin that acts as camouflage and many species also release defensive chemicals from glands in the skin that are poisonous to predators( Robert J. Denver 2008).(See appendix 2, Table: 1a; )(Brent R. Whitaker  2020).

 2.4.1 Anuran metamorphosis (life cycle)

Metamorphosis is a biological process by which an animal physically develops after birth or hatching, involving a conspicuous and relatively abrupt change in the animal’s body structure through cell growth and differentiation(Denver -2008).In a typical anuran development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle, frogs and toads hatch from the eggs as larvae with external gills but it will take some time for the amphibians to interact outside with pulmonary respiration (see appendix 2 Figure 1)(Denver -2008).

The life cycle of a frog consists of three stages: egg, larva, and adult. As the frog grows, it moves through these stages metamorphically, during this, two hormones, prolactin and thyroxine, control the transformation from egg to larva to adult (Klappenbach– 2019).

For both frogs and toads, the external gills of the newly hatched tadpole are covered with a gill sac after a few days, and lungs are quickly formed, front legs are formed under the gill sac, and hind legs are visible a few days later (Denver -2008). Rapid changes in the body can then be observed as the lifestyle of the frog changes completely, the spiral(see Appendix 2, Figure 2) it is not until a few days later that the tail is reabsorbed, due to the higher thyroxin concentrations required for tail resorption (Denver -2008).

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.0     Introduction

The chapter focuses on the ways and methods that are to be adopted in carrying out the data collection; it describes the study design, study population, the sample size, sampling techniques and procedures to be followed by the researcher to come up with the research results and data needed in analyzing information to solve the problem stated.

3.1     LOCATION OF STUDY AREA    

The study area is located in Kampala district which is situated between 32ºEand 33º E and between 0ºN and 1ºN (Atlas of Uganda, 1967). Kampala, as a city district, is divided into five administrative divisions of Nakawa, Makindye, Lubaga, Kawempe and Central covering approximately 189 km2 of land (Nabulo et al, 2007). So the study is to be carried in Busega Wetland as a case study, Busega Parish Lubaga administrative Division, Kampala District. Busega is bordered by unincorporated Wakiso District to the north, Namungoona to the north-east, Lungujja to the east, Nateete to the south, and Buloba to the west. This is approximately 8 kilometres (5.0 mi), by road, south-west of Kampala’s central business district.^[1] The coordinates of Busega are 0°18’36.0″N, 32°31’12.0″E (Latitude: 0.3100; Longitude:32.5200.

The area has an equatorial type of climate and receives relief rainfall, having papyrus vegetation cover as the main plant in the area, and also is used to make mats out of them.  Human activities surrounding the area are industrialization, transport, and several businesses of shops, petrol stations, markets, and bars, washing bays, hotels like Best Hotel Busega and Stallion Hotel Busega. Busega holds a population of above 2000 people as of 2020, and the wetland is in a low lying area and it borders Nateete and extends through Busega, Masaka Highway up to Lubigi Wetland. The area is just the region of the wetland in Busega Parish (see the map in figure 2).

Map of section of Kampala showing the location of Busega

Figure 1:

Figure 2:

3.2 STUDY DESIGN.

For this study, a quantitativesurvey design is to be used. In other words the study is mainly quantitative, measuring both the chemical and physical parameters of water in relation to the nature and the different farming activities in Busega reclaimed Wetland, Kampala District. And design is also meant to determine quantitatively the number or the relative abundance of the anuran larvae and how it is affected bythe water quality, and the different agriculture activities in Busega wetland. Based on the objectives, the study will look at how the different farming activities affect the physical and chemical parameters of water which in turn hypothesized to establish a relationship in the abundance between various stages of the anuran species larvae amphibian.

3.3     SAMPLING SITES     

          3.3.1 Sampling sites for determination of the different agricultural activities in different farming.

The sampling sites are to be done from each different farming ground in the wetland as the study area. Each farming ground selected in the study will be sampling site.

            3.3.2 Sampling sites for determination of the water quality in the different farming areas with respect to the type of crop grown

The sampling sites will be the different farming grounds, therefore water samples will be obtained from the different farming activities of the wetland; that is per type of crop grown in the wetland.

            3.3.3 Sampling sites for determination of the changes in abundance of amphibian larvae in wetland reclaimed farming areas

The sampling sites will be the sampling sites for sites which the samples for analysis of the water quality are to be got from; that is samples will be obtained from each farming activity from the wetland.

3.4 DATA COLLECTION

            3.4.1 Survey on farming activities

The main farming activities which are hypothesized to have an effect on the anuran larvae abundance in the wetland will be generated from questionnaires about the study and will be used and a sample of 20 respondents will be selected from the study area by means of simple random sampling; the researcher will select 20 people randomly in the study area, in the wetland. The set questions (like, what are the main crops grown? what chemicals are applied in particular farming grounds?) will be asked to the different people selected; the information given will be recorded and taken for analysis. This technique will be used because every individual of the population has an equal and independent chance of being part of the sample. Again purposive sampling will be used to select key respondents from the study area and are like the LC1 chairman, people who have lived in the area for many years than other people. The choice of this sample size was informed by the decision of the researcher to focus more on the major farming applications and how often are they used by the farmer.

            3.4.2 Water quality analysis.

Water samples from sugar cane farming ground are to be collected using a basket, and filled in a pre-sterilized clean mirinda-plastic bottle; more water will be collected from other two points randomly and filled in mirinda-plastic bottles of 200ml each. These three samples of water will be put in a flask containing cold water for good carriage to the laboratory.

Other water samples will be collected from yam and eucalyptus farming grounds following the same procedures as above, for both chemical and physical parameters water analysis.

In the laboratory; turbidity, pH, B.O.D, will be measured using a hydro-lab quanta. The depths  of water for each sampling site for which the water samples from the wetland are to be got will be measured by systematically measuring the depth using a meter ruler at those points and the depth will recorded, and the temperature in degrees Celsius shall also be measured and recorded in the field.

            3.4.3 Determining the abundance of the anuran larvae

Sweep nets will be used to determine the population of the anuran larvae; in the sugar cane farming ground, sites will be selected randomly in which the numbers of the larvae are to be collected and counted. The net will be swept in the water contained in the sugar cane farm land, this will be repeated to the yam and eucalyptus farming grounds following the same procedures as above and five times will be swept in each, and the number of anuran larvae is counted manually and recorded from each sampling site.

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS

The different farming activities in Busega Wetland will be put in a table and under each particular crop grown is put below, applications in form of chemicals will also be recorded for each farming activity. Then each activity will be diagnosed or looked at critically with respect to speculate the different effects it has towards the anuran population in the wetland.

The water quality chemical and physical parameters which will be obtained will be put under each respective sampling site in a table and the parameters to be tested in each water sample will be put below. The means range, standard deviation will be calculated and conclusions will be drawn about them.  Data obtained about the amphibian larvae will be presented using descriptive statistics in form of charts and tables using MS excel. The correlation coefficient will be performed to determine relationships between physicochemical parameters and the larvae abundance using SPSS Version (2010).

4.0 RESEARCH FINDINGS

4.1 SURVEY ONDIFFERENT AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES IN THE WETLAND

The different agricultural activities in different farming grounds and their effects to the anuran amphibian larvae in Busega wetland is as detailed below;

4.1.1 YAM FARMING GROUNDS

Different farmers in different farming grounds of yams were interviewed using a questionnaire, and four famers selected randomly from three yam farming grounds; sampling sites, were interviewed. Different farming activities were recorded done in different yam farming grounds;

1. Papyrus Cutting and Wetland Reclamation

Farmers cut the thick vegetation cover in the wetland to create and a free land for yam plantation, farmers use affordable and accessible tools including pangas, slashers to cut the vegetation covering the land which these farmers see profitable for yam production. The vegetation cover is mainly composed of papyrus, some scattered palm trees and a grass cover that dominates the ground cover of the wetland.

The grass which is cut is heaped in different areas of that same land decay and increases on soil formation for yam growing in the wetland.

1. Digging of Trenches/ Streams of Water Canals

Farmers dig trenches in the land after cutting down the vegetation, this is to drain water from the wetland into the main stream; the branch of Nakivubo stream that passes through the wetland. The trenches are also to allow uniform flow of water and reduce on water logging and flooding of water into the farm lands of yams. Farmers use hoes and rakes to dig these water canals into the wetland.

1. Soil fillings/ Soil Discharge and Soil Heaping

The activity involves discharging soil got from a certain area elsewhere into the wetland since the soils of the area highly water logged and flooded so the added soil is to buffer the water content to a state that favors yam growth in the wetland; and also to minimize effects from the flooding of the wetland causing the yam crops to die off and rote;and the increase in population of yam pests and diseases that dwell best in flooded soils of the wetland.

The activity also involves the heaping of the soil in the wetland to allow easy draining of water from the wetland area chosen to be a yam farmland.  Farmers use hoes and rakes to heap the soil and the heaped soil is separated by the water canals dug initially at the state of swamp reclamation, the process is done at an early stage before planting the yams.

1. Planting Yam Suckers

Planting is done using sharp and pointed pangas that dig holes where yam suckers are planted, on the heaped soil. It is done either in rainy or sunny seasons depending on the choice of the farmer due to available water in the soil through the year.

1. Weeding of Yams

The process is done almost every week due to rapid weed growth in the wetland which is facilitated with water enough to stimulate a vigorous growth of wetland weeds which are mainly grasses with high survival rates. Weeding is done using sharp pangas that cut grass to a level that reduces their effects to the yamsthe cut weeds are also left in the garden as mulches and contribute a lot to soil formation in the garden.

Weeding also in a few farmlands farmers use chemicals like Paraquat and 2,4-D to destroy weed cover, but though this is not effective due to the vengeance of the wetlands weeds making these herbicides to have a less effect to the weeds.

1. Use of Chemicals

Farmers use chemicals to boost high yields like use of nitrate chemical fertilizers sprayed and also mostly to reduce the prevalence of pests, nematodes, disease causing fungi that seems to be a source of losses from low and poor quality produce of yams from the farming grounds. Chemicals are used in control of weeds though are used often and “only suit in limited rainfall seasons of the year” said by farmers. Tables 1a, 1b and 1c showing the chemicals used in this farming ground are in appendix 1.

1. Harvesting

Harvesting of yams is done throughout the whole year and is done by use of pangas that cut the roots of the cocoyam in the soil loosening its attachment in the soil and then uprooted by the hands out of the soil, leaving a hole in which the remaining part placed after cutting the eaten part.

4.1.2. EUCALYPTUS FARMING GROUNDS

1. Swamp reclamation/ papyrus cutting

Farmers cut the thick vegetation cover in the wetland to create and a free land for yam plantation, farmers use affordable and accessible tools including pangas, slashers to cut the vegetation covering the land which these farmers see profitable for yam production. The vegetation cover is mainly composed of papyrus, some scattered palm trees and a grass cover that dominates the ground cover of the wetland.

1. Planting eucalyptus seedlings

Seedlings from the nursery bed are planted into the cleared wetland, holes of about 20cm-30cm are dug in a raw difference of 1.5m-2m. The holes are dug using pangas or hoes by farmers.

1. Weeding

Weeding is done using sharp pangas that cut weeds to a level that has less or no effects to eucalyptus plants, it can occur once in every two weeks during the first 4-5months and every month, and then utmost every 2-3months and the process takes some months until when the eucalyptus is above the weeds’ maturity height level.

1. Pruning

Lower plant branches are removed from the growing plant to allow rapid growth in height of the eucalyptus tree, the process is done using sharp pangas.

1. Harvesting

Trees are harvest using hand saws, pangas and petrol hand fueled machines that cut them down, and they can be cut again into logs, timbers, or small pieces for fire wood.

4.1.3. SUGAR CANE FARMING GROUNDS

1. Swamp reclamation/ papyrus cutting

The thick vegetation cover in the wetland is cut and destroyed in preparation for a room forsugar cane plantation, farmers use affordable and accessible tools including pangas, rakes and slashers to cut the vegetation covering the wetland which these farmers see profitable for sugar cane production.

The vegetation cover is mainly composed of papyrus, some scattered palm trees and a grass cover that dominates the ground cover of the wetland.The grass which is cut is heaped in different areas of that same land decay and increases on soil formation for yam growing in the wetland.

1. Planting sugar cane stems

Sugar cane stems are either just forced by the hand into the soil or put in holes dug by hoes, and pangasin the soil.

1. Weeding

Weeding is done using sharp pangas that cut weeds to a level that has less or no effects to young sugar cane plantations and it is done until when the sugar cane dry leaves which are the mulches cover the whole plantation area inhibiting further growth of weeds.

1. Pruning

Lower plant leaves are removed from the growing sugar cane stem; these are mostly dry leaves and those that are aging on the stem. The activity is done by use of covered hands and pangas that cut off these unwanted leaves from the plant stem. The farmer also reduces the outgrowth of many young sugar canes leaving those that can be support by the plant base.

1. Use of chemicals in control of pests and diseases

Chemicals in these farming grounds are only used in control of only diseases, disease causing organisms and pests that attack sugar cane plants. The table; 1d in appendix1shows the different types of chemicals used in the different sugar cane plantations.

1. Mulching

The unwanted leaves and plant remains after the harvest of sugar cane are used as mulches to cover the plantation to prevent further weed growth in the farming grounds. The weeds also which are in the garden are also cut and uprooted and used as mulches in that same garden, these also add to soil formation.

1. Harvesting

Sugar canes are harvested mainly for sell and to a small extent for home consumption; the activity is done by use of sharp pangas the cut the stem attachment at lower ends and reducing the leaves on upper side.

1. Use of chemicals

In sugar cane farming ground, farmers do not use chemicals that add nutrients to the wetland to boost yam yields in last eight years ever since they reclaimed the wetland for sugar cane production. Farmers mostly use chemicals to control organisms that are a source of loss and those that detoriate the quality of sugar cane, farmers spray these on the crops to create a barrier for pests and disease threats to sugar cane. This is because here the main problems are weeds, pests and diseases.  The chemicals used in this farming ground are in table 1d in appendix 1.

4.2 WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS IN THE WETALND

It was observed that the water in the farming grounds of the wetland was stagnant and those in the dug streams was moving but at low speed. The water was also covered with aquatic weeds; algal blooms but though at some farming grounds were absent.

However it was hypothesized that the farming activities had an effect on the quality of water of the wetland but also other activities like industrialization, construction activities, urban sewage since the wetland is near Kampala suburbs; Busega. The activities in yam, sugar cane and eucalyptus farming grounds were the sources of water samples used in the analysis of how these activities affect the water quality of the wetland.

The water quality of the different farming grounds were analyzed basing on the temperature, dissolved oxygen, bio-oxygen demand, P^H, electron conductivity, turbidity and depth of the origin from which the water samples were got; findings analyzed by the hydro-lab quanta are represented in the tables 2a, 2b and 2c  in the appendix 1 .

4.3 DETERMINATION OF THE CHANGES IN ABUNDANCE OF THE ANURAN LARVAE IN DIFFERENT SAMPLING SITES OF THE DIFFERENT FARMING GROUNDS IN THE WETLAND

As compared to other areas of the same wetland which are still in their natural state (not destroyed for agricultural purposes) it was observed that the larvae population in farming grounds was low. Therefore from the observational determination made by the researcher there is a change in the anuran larvae in different sampling sites of the different farming grounds in the wetland.

The number of the larvae was counted for every source of water sample obtained and recorded; the tables; 3a, 3b and 3c shows the count which was made in the field for the anuran larvae in different selected farming grounds of Busega Wetland are presented in the appendix1.

5.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

5.1 EFFECTS OF THE AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES IN THESE FARMING GROUNDS TO THE ANURAN LARVAE

Anuran amphibians are highly dependent on aquatic ecosystems; many amphibian species are exhibiting population declines primarily due to habitat destruction and water quality degradation (

expansion, with devastating effects on local amphibian populations from habitat loss and fragmentation may exacerbate the negative impacts associated with other causes of declines such as habitat degradation, resulting in decreased mating success reducing larvae and decreasing sensibilities to both biotic and abiotic factors of the life of the larvae (Brown et al, 2012).

Standing or slow-moving water is necessary for the egg and anuran larvae developmental stages, thus, aquatic habitat quality can be an important determinant of amphibian species, the trenches and streams dug in wetlands in water draining increases the speed of water in the wetland (Brown et al, 2012), this disturbs and breaks the developmental stages of the larvae.

These also drain water from the wetland reducing water creating water quantity imbalances in the wetland affecting anuran larvae population, in a way that less number of them will be supported by the available water in the wetland.

The advent of drainage technology allowed settlers to drain water in wetlands and to utilize the rich soils for crop production; wetlands have been drained and converted to crop agriculture (Miller et al, 2009). The increased presence of crop agriculture in the wetlands has brought with it an increase in surface water contamination from nutrients from fertilizer application, chemicals used in control of pests and diseases (appendix1 tables 1a;1b;1c;1d), and sediment transported off of agricultural fields(Reeves 2014).

Nutrient enrichment of wetlands, which is one of the primary stressors damaging wetlands; altering the PH and solutes, decrease in oxygen availability of water affecting amphibian larvae (Sparling et al 2002). The wetland habitat of the larval stages is subjected to nutrient and pesticide contamination (Appendix1 tables 1a;1b;1c;1d), this affects the skin (skin diseases ), eyes and the respiratory organs and structures of the anuran larvae(Reeves 2014).

Wetlands were deeper and retained water longer even in the droughts, thus are designed to intercept more sub-surface flow than reference wetlands and likely have a more consistent water supply, contributing to their longer hydroperiods, but due to soil addition in the wetland and weeding and of crops like eucalyptus adds decayed plant material to the wetlandreducing these hydroperiods (Reeves 2014),soil discharge in the wetland also reduces on the natural habitats of the anuran larvae and even kills the larvae as its being dipped off from carriers into the wetland.

Longer hydroperiods also if present naturally allow for more denitrification, but also facilitate predatory species such as birds, bullfrogs and fish that can reduce amphibian larval species richness, abundance, and life success (Boone et al., 2007).

Numerous diseases, particularly thosecaused by emerging infections, have now been linked to anthropogenically drivenenvironmental changes including habitat fragmentation, altered food webs, climate changes and contaminants (Altizer, 2007).

Diseases in freshwater are increasing and of special concern (Paull et al, 2011), playing a particularly important role in the global decline of amphibian larval populations (Daszak et al, 2003).The effect of agricultural activities on wildlife diseases has received much attention (Koprivnikar et al 2012). These are often associated with altered landscapes in the wetland by the different agriculture activities and various contaminants including chemicals (appendix1 tables 1a;1b;1c;1d), (Koprivnikar et al 2012).

In particular, components ofagricultural runoff have significant effectson amphibian diseases in the agricultural fields increasing larvae susceptibilityto infections via immune suppression (Kiesecker, 2002; Christin et al, 2003).Runoff constituents have also been shownto facilitate parasite development within amphibian larvae and thisincreases their density facilitating the transmission of the parasites in the agricultural fields of the wetland affecting the success of the larval stages of anuran amphibians (Koprivnikar et al 2012).

5.2 EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF WATER QUALITY CAUSED BY DIFFERENT FARMING ACTIVITIES TO THE ANURAN LARVAE IN BUSEGA WETLAND.

Land use changes has major impact on the world’s wetland ecosystems and biodiversity, the motivation behind these changes have been to increase agricultural production, often resulting in negative effects on water quality (Alavaisha-2020). Changes in water quality, either due to excess nutrients or chemicals, modify aquatic species composition and biodiversity (Muñoz-Mas et al., 2019; Seeteram et al., 2019; Seki et al., 2018), macroinvertebrates respond to water quality changes because of their biological sensitivity (Resh et al. 2017). Amphibian species are among many organismal formsfaced with risks of extinction (Stuart et al. 2004), water contaminants play an important role in threatening amphibian species already in the midst of the sixth extinction; species relying exclusively on agricultural habitats for breeding are under exacerbated threats due to the high levels of contamination from chemicals used for fertilization and pest control changing water parameters (Borzée et al, 2018).Agricultural intensification; the use of pesticides and other agricultural activities has increased notably, and pesticide residues in water occur frequently in wetland water making the exposure of anuran larvae to pesticides highly probable (Henna 2006).

The anuran larvae are negatively affected by sustained use of agricultural chemicals changing water parameters (see appendix1 tables; 2a, 2b, and 2c,)(Borzée et al, 2018). Ammonia and Other Nitrogen Compounds Concentrations of ammonia above 0.2 mg/liter as nitrogen use for fertilizers are detrimental and affect amphibian larvae, ammonium carbonate and ammonium hydroxide form in waters high in carbonates and at 4 mg/liter these compounds are toxic to amphibian larvae causing stressful pH changes (Rockville Pike1974), (see appendix1 tables; 2a, 2b, and 2c,). Nitrogen and phosphorus containing fertilizers causes clogging of larval breathing apparatus (Sagasta et al, 2017). Excess nutrient causes bad colour and smell, creating an environment of discomfort to larvae with reduced light penetration limiting food growth for the larvae, nitrates in water above maximum contamination level (>10mg/L) cause health problems to larval stages (Ward, 2009).When more fertilizers are added than required for production in crop fields, the introduction of excess nutrients may cause over-fertilization, leaking into water streams of the wetland and lowering the pH (Alavaisha-2020).

Amongst the physical parameter changes, the most remarkable one is water loss (depth of water), which leads to several consequences, including decreased population density, reduction of the amount of food, and an increase in water temperature (Juncá 2009)The temperature effect on the physiological processes of anuran amphibians is incontestable, mainly due to the ectothermic nature of this group (Ultsch et al, 1999). The relationship between temperature and development time may be physiologically explained by the influence of temperature on the endocrine system (Bervenet al, 1979), especially as the factor responsible for the production of thyroxine that stimulates the development of amphibian larvae (Denver et al, 1997).

5.3. AGRICULTURALEFFECTS TO THE ANURAN LARVAE ABUMBANDANCE IN BUSEGA WETLAND

The overall effect of exposure of agriculture to the wetland was a medium decrease in amphibian larvae survival and mass and a large increase in abnormality frequency; this translates to a 14.3% decrease in survival, a 7.5% decrease in mass, and a 535% increase in abnormality frequency,this implies that these pose an important threat to amphibians and may play a role in their present decline(Serrano et al, 2012).

A variety of pollutants occur in natural habitats including fertilizers, pesticides, and heavy metals, this broad array of pollutants  increasingly introduced into the environment by direct application and runoff from crops  (Bergstrom et al, 2001). Effects of these  pollutants on amphibians range from lethal effects to sub-lethal effects including decreased growth and development and increased developmental abnormality frequency, susceptibility to diseases, and behavioral alterations causing a reduced survival rate and deaths of larvae (Karraker et al. 2008).

The reduced amount of ditches caused by increased subsurface drainage hinders larval movement creating (Mazerolle 2004), leading to decreased nutritional support, from loss and reduced food base or source, exposure to rapid predation and easily exposed to human take (exploitation) and also increasing mortality rates of the larvae, all these leading to incidental resulting in declining numbers within a population (Hayes et al 2010).

6.0 CONCLUSION and recommendations

6.1 conclusion

Different agricultural activities have been carried out in several areas of the wetland for crop production in farming fields in wetland floodplain soils, yams, eucalyptus and sugarcanes fields as the major crops grown. Activities include papyrus cutting (wetland vegetation destruction), trench digging, soil discharge/soil filling, use of chemicals, planting, weeding, pruning and harvesting: these destroy natural habitats of the anuran larvae and others kill directly and indirectly the larvae through the changing the water quality in which they survive creating diseases with decreased oxygen or low D.O. some activities also expose the larvae to the natural enemies and predators like wetland (papyrus cutting. The quality of water in the wetlands has an optimal temperature for anuran larvae but with a low water depth, high turbidity level, less acidic with yam fields having the more acidic amongst the three fields. The B.O.D is low or below the normal; 1ppm these water quality changes lead to changes in the normal water quality states of the natural habitats of the larvae and these causes suffocation, diseases and invasion of invasive species of which some are predatory. The larvae population is very minimal compared to other non-detoriated wetlands in Uganda like Nakyetema in Mpigi District whose anuran larvae abundance is almost above 10000 times the population abundance of the same larvae in Busega wetland. Anuran larvae abundance as indicators of wetland detoriation here in the wetland simply indicates that the wetland is under detoriation. Intensive agricultural use of drained/reclaimed wetlands has been shown to lead to major problems affecting the anuran larvae abundance This does not only lead to severe habitat detoriation and loss but also results to direct death and disease  prevalenceto anuran larvae commercial crop species are being developed, these are certainly not suitable for cultivation in wetlands. From a sustainability perspective, reclamation of wetlands for agriculture should be strongly discouraged. Extensive use of wetlands without drastic reclamation measures and without fertilizer and pesticides might result in combinations of food production with other wetland services, with biodiversity remaining more or less intact. There is a need for research by environmental scientists to maximize or optimize such solutions.

6.2 Recommendations

7.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

Wetland boundaries need to be clearly demarcated and perimeter guards be put in place so that even as water levels and wetlands vegetation coverage recedes, the communities are clear on where the boundaries lie.

Local Government institutions should actively manage the natural resources within their jurisdictions. This includes planning, management and enforcement including stopping of illegal activities. This may best be undertaken through community policing which is an approach encouraged by NEMA.

The ministry needs to issue instructions to the Uganda Land Board to cancel all titles in wetlands on public land acquired unlawfully. This is especially for land titles on the Busega wetland, in Kazinga zone 1. There is an opportunity to enforce this instruction and promote compliance through education and incentives.

NEMA with the help of the government can also make public awareness about the dangers of wetland detoriation and its impacts to the community environment, the organization can also resettle farmers from this place to other non wetland areas of the country and educate people who live on or near wetlands on how to be aware of how to properly and sustainably use a wetland and gain maximum benefits from the wetland at an insignificant detoriation rate.

Reducing the use of such chemicals within the range of the frog species could potentially contribute to the improved health of the populations of these species and use of environmentally friendly methods to control pests, diseases and weeds within the wetland.

8.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Many people have contributed in one way or another for the completion of this research study in a sense that it would be impossible for me to mention them all, the journey was not easy therefore special thanks goes to all an enormous number of friends and peers in the field, supervisors, staffs, laboratory technicians, fellow students my relatives and are just a few mentioned whose help in any form lead me to the completion of this study, with sincere gratitude I gratefully acknowledge and thank the Department of Biological science of the mighty Kyambogo University for the knowledge and skills that lead me to the completion of the study.

In a very special way, I extend my sincere and heartfelt gratitude to my main supervisor Dr. Asio Ssanyu Grace:Department of Biological science of Kyambogo University for her encouragement, academic guidance, commitment,persistence, toughness and follow-up unique spirit time she availed to me and support since the very beginning of the project laid many successes throughout the study. Her trust to me is among the qualities that pushed me forward to accomplish this amazing piece of work. Special thanks to my laboratory technician Mr. Isabirye Isaac his services, patience, encouragement, academic guidance and leadership style are highly valuable to me, especially during laboratory work of the study and providing some necessary equipments needed for the study.

I would also like to acknowledge exceptional and esteemed appreciations to my beloved mother Mrs. Munyikwa Gertrude and my beloved uncle Mr. Paul Ssekanjako for their encouragement, love and mostly the financial support at the very beginning of the study to the end.

Special thanks are further extendedto the local people of the Kazinga LC1, Busegafor the strong support and cooperation; thanks to Mr. and Mrs. Jimmy and their children for the welcome and guide through the wetland provided the nice social and academic environment that contributed to this output.

And lastly, I would like to give very big thanks our ALMIGHTY GOD, who gave me an opportunity to study, blessings, and good health that enabled me to accomplish this research study.

9.1 APPENDIX 1

TABLE 1a: Chemicals used in the sampling site 1 of yam farm grounds

TABLE 1b: Chemicals used in the sampling site 2 of yam farm ground

TABLE1c: Chemicals used in the sampling site 3 of yam farming ground

Table 1d: Chemicals used in sugar cane farming grounds

Table 2a: composition of water quality in eucalyptus farm grounds

Table 2b: composition of water quality in sugar cane farm grounds

Table 2c: composition of water quality in yam farm grounds

Table 3a: number of anuran larvae in yam farm grounds

Figure 3a:A graph of % of D.O and the number of anuran larvae of yam farm grounds

Table 3b:number of anuran larvae in eucalyptus farm grounds

Figure 3b:A graph of % of D.O and the number of anuran larvae of eucalyptus farm grounds

Table 3c:number of anuran larvae in sugarcane farm grounds

Figure 3c: A graph of % of D.O and the number of anuran larvae of sugar cane farm grounds

9.2 APPENDIX 2

Table 1a: Similarities and Differences between Frogs and Toads (Whitaker-2020).

Figure 1The life cycle of a green frog.

Figure 2:(a) just before metamorphosis, only 24 hours are needed to reach the stage in part b. (b) Almost functional common frog with some remains of the gill sac and a not fully developed jaw.

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