CHAPTER TWO

Literature review

Introduction

This chapter presents the review of the available related literature written by other authors in relation to the topic under study as follows

Polygamy

Polygyny is defined as “the state or practice of having more than one wife or female mate at one time” (Merriam-Webster, 2/14/03), and polygamy is defined as a “marriage in which a spouse of either sex may have more than one mate at the same time” (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2/14/03). Polygamous marriages can be practiced through three different methods: polygyny (more than one wife), polyandry (more than one husband), and polygynandry (a group marriage where more than one wife is married to more than one husband) (Al-Krenawi & Graham 2009). Polygamy is illegal in many states in America, meaning it is against the law for one person to have more than one marriage license at the same time. For this paper, all references to polygamy are in the Hmong cultural context, meaning that there is usually only one marriage legalized, most often times it is the first marriage, and all subsequent marriages are not.

The first wife is often referred to as the elder wife, senior wife or first wife; while subsequent wives are seen as younger wives, junior wives, or second wives (Al-Krenawi, Graham & Al-Krenawi, 2007).

CAUSES OF POLYGAMY

The practice of polygamy is seen in many different cultures across the world (Al-Krenawi, Graham, & Al-Krenawi, 2009) and frequently occurs in societies which allocate social status based on heredity and inheritance. This particular marriage custom is most prevalent and accepted in Middle Eastern, Asian, African, and Oceanic cultures where “human resources” (Al-Krenawi, Graham & Al-Krenawi, 2007) are vital to sustainable living. Large, extended families, including polygynous household, are occur most often in societies which have to rely heavily on agriculture to provide subsistence. In agricultural societies, the additional labor supplied from the polygamous household lowers the number of outside employees needed to maintain a living and may further perpetuate the family’s wealth (Graham & Al-Krenawi, 2007).

Contrary to the above literature in Kabalamba most polygamous families are economically stable and more engaging in both farming and business. hence a need to research on the contribution of polygamy in social stability.

Nevertheless, there are societies in Europe and North America (Broude, 2009), such as the Mormons (Muncy,2004), who practice polygamy as well. Polygamous relationships has always existed in the United States, but they have been frequently categorized as “extramarital affairs” or “illicit relations” (Scott, 2006), rather than polygamy. In America, polygamy among the black population has grown out of the increasing number of teenage pregnancies and the lack of fathers committing to marry the mother of their children.

The practice of polygamy is viewed differently from culture to culture and even within their own cultures, Some societies have made polygamy acceptable through the use of intense societal pressures, Many societies have given higher status to first wives, often designating them as a “senior wife” (Al-Krenawi, 2009) or elder wife. Often times, first wives may have more authority over the entire household, including more rights, power, and influence, Broude (2009) reiterated this finding in his study, describing the first wife as an executive, who administered and directed the other wives duties, activities, and resources. Several societies have demonstrated that polygamous wives benefit from the presence of each other by cooperating and working together to handle family, household and economic duties (Al-Krenawi, Graham & Al-Krenawi, 2007). In a study on African women, Anderson (2000) found that many women preferred polygamous marriages due to the additional support from another female, both economically and in child rearing, and the relational connections made with the second wife. Gwanfogbe et al. (2007) concluded that when husbands were unsupportive and uninvolved, many first wives become more satisfied when there was the addition of another wife. On the other side, research on polygamy among the Bedouin-Arab people has shown that first wives are inferior to subsequent wives, which causes them to suffer adverse effects from the polygynous relationship.

However in Kabalaba most first wives are accorded a lot of respect as senior wives by the husband, wives and the community hence the above literature leaves a gap to research.

Research has shown polygamous families to have many of their own distinctive problems, (Slonim-Nevo, 2010). Often, these problems arise from situational factors specific to polygamous household, such as a higher number of siblings, a higher number of parental figures, the absence of a father or an authoritative father, jealousy and competition of family members over resources and emotional relations with one father (Slonim-Nevo, 2011). Living areas are often crowded and economic resources taxed to the limit due to the higher number of dependants. Research on polygamy among the Bedouin-Arab people has shown that first wives are inferior to subsequent wives, which causes them to suffer adverse effects from the polygynous relationship (Graham & Al-Krenawi, 2009). Many junior wives are favored by their husbands, allowing them to obtain more economic resources and support. First wives often experience more economic hardship and less satisfying relationships with their husbands (Izzeldin, 2001). has also noted polygamous marriages causing harmful psychological effects on a significant number of first wives causing many of them to seek psychiatric outpatient mental health treatment. Research has shown several of the psychological disorders seen widely among first wives have included depression, anxiety and somaticized symptoms (Al-Krenawi, 2008).

EFFECTS OF POLYGAMY

Relationships with husbands and fathers were described as neglectful by first wives and teachers, emphasizing a lack of interest and minimal interaction with them and their children. First wives have a higher risk of depression and a higher number of somatic complaints of aches, insomnia and fatigue, lower self-perceptions, anxiety, interpersonal sensitivity and phobias (Al-Krenawi, Graham & Izzeldin, 2011). The children displayed problems in two key areas, behavioral and academic problems both at home and at school. These included “disobedience… hyperactivity…repeated lying to a parent or other authority person…sibling fighting…enuresis… stuttering” (Al-Krenawi, Graham & Al-Krenawi, 2007) and below average levels of academic achievement. Children displayed an inability to concentrate, had low attendance, incompletion of homework, peer and teacher relational problems and maladjustment to classroom procedures (Al-Krenawi, Graham & Al-Krenawi, 2008).

Gwanfogbe et al. (2007) found that within polygynous households, a wife’s level of life contentment was statistically correlated to her “wife-order” (p 62), her satisfaction with her marriage, and her socioeconomic level. Senior wives were significantly less happy and satisfied with their lives than junior wives. This was in large part due to their satisfaction with their marriage and the amount of support received from their husbands, which was minimal compared to those offered to junior wives. In addition, the younger the age of the senior wife, the less happy she was with the polygynous marriage her husband partook in. Something else worth noting was that the level of support by husbands was positively correlated with his age.

Al-Krenawi and Lightman (2010) looked at the effects between children from polygamous families and children from monogamous families by comparing their levels of academic achievement, the amount of conflicts within the family and their ability to adjust to social situations. Children from polygamous families had lower levels of scholastic achievement, more difficulty adjusting to the procedures and norms of the school and classroom, and a higher number of conflicts in their homes (Al-Krenawi & Lightman, 2010).

Children from polygamous families were found to have had a higher 16 number of problems in their home lives (Oyefeso & Adegoke, 2008) which in turn, affected their scholastic achievement. Similarities of polygamous families to large families were also noted; emphasizing the larger number of children probably caused a higher probability of conflicts between family members, such as sibling-sibling, parent-child and parent-parent, and dysfunction within the family as a whole (Al-Krenawi & Lightman, 2008).

Polygamy can also have detrimental impacts on the children. It was found that children from polygamous families have more negative perceptions of themselves as compared to those from monogamous families (Graham & Slonim-Nevo, 2012). After administering self-surveys and analyzing data, conclusions were drawn that the lower self-concepts could have been due to the fact that children from polygamous households struggle harder amongst other siblings to obtain a rightful place within the family (Owuamanam, 2014). These additional sibling competitions found in polygamous families to conclude that children from these types of families were more susceptible to drug use and abuse as well as lower levels of adjustment. In 1992, Oyefeso and Adegoke tested adolescents from polygynous and monogamous households for psychological adjustment. They found that adolescent males from polygynous families fared far worse at adjusting then those from monogamous families. They concluded that the maladjustments seen in the males may have been due to early exposure to a chaotic life where the child was responsible for protecting his mother and sisters from the dysfunctional stressors of living in a polygamous household (Oyefeso & Adegoke, 2012).

Within the Arab-Muslim population, children from polygamous families were found to have lower self-esteems and higher scores on all three subscales of the Brief Symptom Inventory (Al-Krenawi, Graham, & Slonim-Nevo, 2012). Authors found adolescents’ scores on the Self-Esteem Scale to be significantly lower than those from monogamous families, while reports for “interpersonal sensitivity…depression…and paranoid ideation” were significantly higher. In addition, a statistical number of children from polygamous families reported lower levels of functioning on the McMaster Family Assessment Device (Al-Krenawi, Graham, & Slonim-Nevo, 2013). Another important aspect of the study was the finding that there was a relationship between lower parental education and polygamy. After careful analysis of data, it appeared that polygamy affected the children through indirect means, such as lower socioeconomic status of the family and lower level of family functioning (Al-Krenawi, Graham, & Slonim-Nevo, 2012).

However there are many elites who are from polygamous families and they are polygamous themselves and they are economically stable. This brings the above augment into investigation.

Children may be defensive of their own families and display resentment and anger towards the other sub-family (Al-Krenawi, Graham & Izzeldin, 2011). In times of discord, many of the senior wife’s children chose their biological mother over their father due to factors such as half-sibling rivalry, jealousy and loyalty for their own mothers. However, their fathers and the tribe would have expectations that they would side with them. This has caused many of the children significant confusions with their boundaries and loyalties (Lev-Weisel & Al-Krenawi, 2000).

MEASURES AND PROGRAMMES THAT COULD BE  IMPLEMENTED TO ENHANCE THE  CONTRIBUTION OF POLYGAMY TO SOCIAL STABILITY

Modern societies regard democracy as a way of liberating individual self-expression. Freedom is claimed by all cultural groups and human rights are supposedly valued and observed in modern democratic countries. But, despite all the struggles for liberation, polygamy is a prevailing sign of male dominance in many African societies today and for personal or traditional reasons some women succumb to polygamy, thus perpetuating this inhuman practice.

In most African societies, recognition brought about by wealth and a sense of authority is the most valued characteristic of manhood. For most polygamous men, polygamy is not only regarded as a type of marriage but as a value system by which they can attain a superior level of recognition in their societies:

In recent years, social scientists have increasingly emphasized the substantial impact of

family structure on children’s health (2004; Heaton, Forste, Hoffman & Flake, 2005). In general, children in nontraditional families have been found to have poorer outcomes compared with those in intact families with both biological parents. Differential resources have been identified as the main process through which family structure affects child outcomes (Ross, Mirowsky, & Goldsteen, 1990; White and Rogers, 2000). With respect to child health and survival in particular, the presence of a spouse is believed to increase a family’s resources necessary for optimal child outcomes.

Polygamy, the practice of having more than one spouse, is practiced throughout the world including western societies. Some studies have stated that nearly eighty percent of societies have polygamous marriages although the true percentage is unknown (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2009). This is partially through the fact in many western societies, including the United States, do not recognize polygamous marriages as being legal which forces many polygamous families to remain silent of their practice. Polygamy is practiced in small groups through out North America and Europe but mostly practiced throughout the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and Oceana (Widyaningrum, 2005; Al-Krenawi, 2009). In fact, some studies have stated that polygamous marriages can be as much as 20-50% in some African countries (Slonim-Nevo, & Al-Krenawi, 2006).

There are several reasons proponents gives for practicing polygamy and, more specifically polygyny, one husband having two or more wives. One of which is allowing women, who would otherwise remain single, to get married. These would be single mothers, former prostitutes, and older women. Many religions which supports polygamy states that it would be unfair for these women to be without husbands. Articles have mentioned that some men prefer polygamy because it increases the number of children, specifically male children (Slonim-Nevo & Al-Krenawi, 2010).

Many religious proponents will bring up the fact that both Abraham and David had hundreds of wives and they were still favored by God. Also, many would say that there is no law within the Bible which specifically condemns polygamy. Because of the polygamous practices in the Old Testament, up to the eleventh century many Jewish sects would allow a man to have multiple wives. In fact, a few Rabbis in Israel will allow a man to take another wife if his first wife is unable have children (IslamReligion, 2008). As with Judaism, all three Abrahamic religions have, some still do, practice polygamy.

Along with a few sects of Judaism and Christianity, Muslims also practice polygamy to this day. Unlike the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (LDS) where polygamy is an intricate part of their spirituality, Muslims simply allow the practice and they do not rely on it spiritually. Unlike in Judaism and Christianity, polygamy in Islam is regulated stating how many women a can marry and how they should be treated. In Islam, a man can marry up to four women and they must all be treated with equality. Also, a man is prohibited in marrying another woman if, in so doing, either wife would be treated unfairly. Marriage in Islam, unlike other religions, is secured with a contract between the couple and defines the responsibilities between both partners. Within this contract, the wife may be able to state that her husband cannot marry another woman (Badawi).

Although polygamy has been practiced by numerous religions and for centuries, the effects of the practice can be detrimental to women. Women in polygamous marriages are more likely to have psychological conditions than women in monogamous marriages (Al-Krenawi, 1999; 2011). These effects can be attributed to the practice of polygamy in general and not necessarily to one religion or another. Despite physical, psychological, and “religious” abuse, Islamic women finds a great strength in their spirituality to cope and survive.

Often times in polygamous marriages, several harmful effects comes from it including pitting co-wives against each other and various forms control over the wives. Physical, emotional, and sexual abuse are found within polygamous marriages, as in monogamous marriages, although it is not the only negative effect wives suffer with. Often times the wives have to compete with each other just for attention from their husband and they often feel jealous when their husband is with one of the other wives ( Widyaningrum, 2009).

Abuse comes in many different forms within a polygamous marriage as it does in a monogamous marriage. Also, it is often times, used as a source of controlling wives within the marriage. Physical, psychological, “religious” abuse, or exploitation of religion, can be used by husband to control their wives. In polygamous marriages, abuse comes in many different forms and , often times, carried out by more than the husband. A study found that in a majority of cases where severe abuse occurred in polygamous marriages, the women often times entered into it unwillingly. Some husbands chose to keep subsequent marriages a secret from the senior wives. Even when junior wives are known, the addition of wives causes significant stress as it means a change in family and economic structure (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2011).

Within Islam, men can marry multiple wives but they must treat them equally and this is where most of the abuse can stems from. Wives from abusive polygamous marriages have stated that it is the inequality within their marriage and not polygamy itself which caused the abuse (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2011). Jealousy and uncertainty basically runs the lives of women within polygamous marriages. Often times, wives feel jealous toward the other wife while the husband is with them. When the husband does return to the other wife, she is unable to be with him sexually as she is thinking of the time when he was not with her. This can lead to sexual abuse to the wife as the husband can force or coerce her into it (Widyaningrum, 2005).

Although Islamic women are allowed to work outside the home, women often times must receive permission from their husbands in order to work. As they need their husband permission, many women do not work which can create harder economic problems than a monogamous family has as their husband’s must be divided between families. The addition of wives, abuse, and economic problems all can create emotional difficulties for the women involved. Many of these difficulties can be expressed through physical symptoms, as is expected and accepted in some Bedouin-Arab societies (Al-Krenawi, 2011). Al-Krenawi (2012) also discussed how senior wives, wives who were married longer, tended to have much lower self-esteem than do junior wives. This comes from how these terms are viewed in Bedouin-Arab society, generally senior wives are viewed as “old” wives while junior wives are considered “young” wives. Self-esteem can also be lower when senior wives view the addition of a wife is because they were unable to fulfill the duties of being a wife.

Women of Islam can and do have many rights granted to them and many of which are granted to them by the Qur’an. During marriage, both bride and groom agrees to a contract and if either side breaks that contract then divorce in allowed and expected. A spouse can ask for divorce if the other partner had become abusive and neglectful. Also, in regards in inheritance and property, an Islamic woman is under no requirement to share earnings or inheritance with any one unless she consents. Finally, according to the Islamic faith, God is the only master to women and if their husbands do not represent God then the marriage contract is broken (Maqsood).

Despite women being afforded rights and equality within the Islamic faith, religion can also become a form of abuse when the interpretation is used to control women. This is seen in most, if not all, patriarchal religions and not just Islam. Widyaningrum (2005) mentioned in their study that husbands have told their wives a verse which promises eternal life in heaven if they accept their husband’s remarriage. The wife was originally unaccepted of her husband’s remarriage until her husband coerced her into it by showing that Allah honors women in polygamous marriages. Abusive husbands, often times, manipulate religious texts in order to manipulate their wives into accepting the polygamous marriage and subsequent physical and sexual abuse.

Abuse and the mistreatment of women can be prevalent in polygamous marriages no matter the religious belief. The abuse and mistreatment can lead to question the purpose of living. The trauma of marrital violence causes women to question their own safety, spirituality, the meaningfulness of life (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2013). Spirituality have been found to be both a source of strength and weakness among Muslim women who have been abused (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2009. For many women, spirituality was a source of hope, which allowed them to cope, and a source of despondence.

Islamic women’s spirituality can give the women strength to cope with the inequality, abuse, and emotional difficulties which can arise in a polygamous life. There are several ways which Muslim women rely on their faith to help them cope. Many women rely on prayer, recitation of the Qur’an, and meditation to help them. Hassouneh-Phillips (2009) mentioned that women felt comforted when they prayed to Allah. They mentioned that they felt they could appeal to Allah directly through prayer and through this they felt that He was the only source of support. This has been supported by Widyaningrum (2009) who found that wives in polygamous marriage found a personal relationship with Allah through prayer. The wives in the study also stated they felt comforted through their prayers to Allah for help and guidance.

Another form of spiritual coping which Islamic women have found helpful, was Qur’anic recitation. This is a poetic and rhythmic recitations of verses from the Qur’an which can be listened to either in person or on tape. Many Muslims have stated that this can be a source of great inspiration and comfort (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2013). A Scriptural source of support and comfort have been used by women in Judaism, and Christianity because it provides a source of comfort through knowing that others have felt this way and God has never abandoned them.

Another form of spiritual coping which Islamic women found helpful was meditations which is similar to Qur’anic recitation. Women would focus on repeating verses from the Qur’an or other religious verses to dissociate form immediate harm or to drown out suicidal thoughts. This was form of coping was most common to try to protect themselves from an immediate threat (Widyaningrum, 2015).

Although spirituality can give a person a great strength to endure abuse, spirituality can also lend to a person questioning the purpose of living. As part of any religion, Muslim women are taught that they would be rewarded in heaven if they suffer in life. This, in part, can give strength but it can also send a message that life does not ultimately matter (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2013). Also, as husbands manipulates the religious texts, women learn that it is useless to fight against the abuse which happens and it is their duty to accept what is given to them. Women then can enter a state of learned helplessness and give up hope.

Spirituality plays a vital part in the lives of women in polygamous marriages whether it is a way of coping or as a manipulated tool against them. It is important to understand the many ways in which spirituality can play a part not only for Islamic women but for women in general. Spirituality can supply a deep sense of support for women which may not be available any other way. Despite the possible negative effects of manipulation of religious texts, many Islamic women kept their faith either through believing in the ultimate good of their religious texts or developing their own interpretations of it.