CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction of the study
This chapter presents the literature that has been reviewed in line with this study. The purpose of literature review is to establish the existing theoretical background of the study so that the investigation will not be carried out in void. Its presented according to the objectives of the study.
2.1 The socio-cultural factors that influences the representation of female teachers
Globally, societal norms and expectations regarding women’s roles have historically placed them in domestic and caregiving responsibilities, which in turn limit their access to education and professional development. According to UNESCO (2019), despite women comprising more than 60% of the teaching workforce in many countries, they remain underrepresented in upper primary, secondary, and leadership positions. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, women make up only 23% of secondary school teachers and an even smaller proportion in school leadership roles (UNESCO, 2019).
In many African societies, cultural norms dictate that women prioritize family responsibilities over professional ambitions, which directly impacts their career advancement. Sifuna and Chege (2006) argue that in Kenya and similar contexts, women often face resistance when aspiring for positions perceived to be male-dominated, such as upper primary or administrative teaching roles. These cultural attitudes discourage women from applying for promotions or further training, thereby limiting their representation.
Religious beliefs also play a critical role. In some conservative communities, religious interpretations restrict women’s roles to the private sphere, making teaching at higher levels, particularly in mixed-gender settings, culturally inappropriate. For instance, a study by Mahony and Hextall (2000) revealed that in some Islamic contexts, families and communities oppose women teaching adolescent boys, which significantly reduces the pool of female teachers available for upper primary and secondary levels.
Furthermore, societal perceptions of leadership and authority being masculine traits also discourage women from pursuing or being considered for senior roles in education. According to Lumby and Azaola (2011), in many parts of the world, including Latin America and Africa, leadership in schools is often equated with male characteristics, such as assertiveness and authority, creating bias against women educators.
Early marriage and motherhood also pose significant socio-cultural constraints. In Uganda, research by Muwonge et al. (2019) found that many women drop out of teacher training colleges due to pregnancy or early marriage, limiting the number of qualified female teachers. This issue is further compounded by lack of maternity support and child care facilities, which discourage mothers from returning to or continuing in the profession.
Additionally, gender stereotyping in education itself can discourage young girls from aspiring to become teachers. Stromquist (1995) notes that curricula and teacher attitudes in some contexts reinforce gender norms that portray teaching, especially at higher levels, as a male profession. As a result, fewer girls are motivated to pursue teaching careers beyond the primary level, socio-cultural factors such as traditional gender roles, religious beliefs, societal expectations, and gender stereotypes continue to hinder the equitable representation of female teachers, especially in higher-level teaching and leadership positions. Addressing these barriers requires comprehensive strategies including gender-sensitive policies, community sensitization, and targeted support for women educators.
2.2 Institutional and policy-related barriers affecting the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools
Institutional and policy-related barriers significantly hinder the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools, particularly in developing countries. Despite efforts toward gender equality in education, systemic challenges embedded in institutional practices and weak policy implementation continue to disadvantage women. One key institutional barrier is the lack of gender-sensitive recruitment and promotion procedures. According to UNESCO (2019), while women make up over 60% of the global teaching workforce at the primary level, they are underrepresented in upper primary and leadership roles due to biased recruitment and promotion systems that often favor men. For instance, in Uganda, female teachers constitute 67% of lower primary teaching staff, yet only 30% serve in upper primary sections and even fewer in headteacher roles (Ministry of Education and Sports [MoES], 2020).
Promotion criteria within educational institutions often lack transparency and are not aligned with the unique needs of female educators. Studies by Morley (2005) and Sutherland-Addy (2002) highlight that women are frequently evaluated against standards that overlook their dual responsibilities at work and home. Policies that fail to accommodate maternity leave, flexible working hours, or breastfeeding provisions act as deterrents to career progression. Moreover, promotion panels are often dominated by male administrators, resulting in implicit bias against women candidates. A study by Tadria (2007) in Uganda noted that women reported being overlooked for promotions due to assumptions that they could not handle demanding leadership roles.
The absence of effective gender mainstreaming in educational policies further exacerbates the issue. Although many countries, including Uganda, have ratified international frameworks such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the practical implementation of these policies at institutional levels remains weak. According to the Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE, 2015), only a few education systems in Sub-Saharan Africa have comprehensive policies promoting gender equality in teacher management, particularly in rural postings where female teachers are least represented.
Workplace harassment and lack of institutional support also contribute to poor retention of female teachers. UNESCO (2018) reports that in many countries, female teachers face sexual harassment, intimidation, and lack of mentorship, especially in male-dominated environments such as upper primary schools. These experiences often lead to burnout, low morale, or early resignation. Additionally, limited access to professional development opportunities reduces their competitiveness for promotions. In a study conducted in Kenya, Onyango and Wamahiu (2012) found that only 28% of women teachers had participated in leadership training programs compared to 64% of their male counterparts.
Furthermore, posting policies that assign female teachers to remote or insecure areas without adequate housing or family support structures discourage many from remaining in the profession or accepting promotions. According to a report by UNGEI (2019), female teachers in rural areas of Uganda face greater challenges due to poor infrastructure, lack of transportation, and family separation, which adversely affects retention, institutional and policy-related barriers such as gender-biased recruitment and promotion practices, weak enforcement of gender policies, inadequate support structures, and lack of professional development opportunities significantly constrain the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools. Addressing these challenges requires a deliberate gender-responsive approach to educational planning, policy reform, and institutional accountability mechanisms.
2.3 The personal and professional challenges that discourages female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions.
There is a complex interplay of personal and professional challenges that hinder the recruitment and retention of female teachers in upper primary teaching positions. Personal responsibilities such as childbearing, household duties, and caregiving obligations continue to disproportionately affect women, making it difficult for them to commit fully to demanding teaching roles. According to Mwiria (2018), many female teachers struggle to balance teaching responsibilities with domestic roles, particularly in patriarchal societies where women are expected to prioritize family over career. This dual burden has been linked to high attrition rates among female teachers, especially those posted to rural or distant schools (UNESCO, 2019).
Professional challenges are equally significant. Studies by Njeri and Kimathi (2020) in Kenya found that female teachers face limited opportunities for promotion, lack of mentorship, and gender bias in school leadership appointments, which demotivates many from pursuing or staying in upper primary roles. Moreover, school postings often place female teachers in environments lacking adequate facilities, safety, and housing, especially in remote areas—an issue emphasized by Muhwezi et al. (2021), who noted that nearly 40% of female teachers in rural Uganda left their positions due to insecurity and poor accommodation conditions. This issue is compounded by school policies that lack gender sensitivity, offering little support for maternity leave, child care, or flexible working arrangements (Tuyizere et al., 2022).
Furthermore, the absence of female role models and professional networks in upper primary teaching also discourages entry and continuity. According to a report by the Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE, 2020), female teachers expressed feeling isolated and undervalued in upper primary positions compared to their male counterparts. In Uganda, a Ministry of Education and Sports report (2023) indicated that only 38% of upper primary teaching staff were women, attributing this to harsh working conditions and limited career progression opportunities for female teachers.
Additionally, cultural and societal expectations play a role. In many African contexts, teaching older children is viewed as a role more suited for male teachers due to discipline and authority stereotypes. A study by Kaggwa and Akankwasa (2024) in Uganda revealed that 62% of school administrators still held biases favoring male teachers for upper primary roles, believing they are better at managing senior pupils. Such attitudes contribute to a hostile work climate that demoralizes female teachers and hinders their professional growth.
2.4 Summary
Societal norms and cultural expectations continue to limit women’s participation in upper primary teaching roles. Globally, although women dominate the teaching workforce numerically, they are underrepresented in higher teaching levels and leadership. In Sub-Saharan Africa, only 23% of secondary school teachers are women. Cultural beliefs prioritize women’s domestic responsibilities, discourage career advancement, and reinforce male dominance in upper-level teaching. Religious doctrines in conservative communities, such as Islamic regions, often bar women from teaching older boys. Societal perceptions that leadership is a masculine trait further limit female teachers’ promotion. Early marriage, motherhood, and lack of maternity and childcare support also hinder women’s continuity in the profession. Gender stereotypes in curriculum and school environments discourage young girls from pursuing upper-level teaching careers.
Institutions often lack gender-sensitive recruitment and promotion frameworks, disadvantaging women. Although women are the majority in lower primary teaching roles, few hold upper primary or leadership positions. Promotion processes often overlook women’s dual roles at home and work, and male-dominated panels may show bias. Many policies supporting gender equality are poorly implemented. Harassment, lack of mentorship, and limited access to leadership training worsen retention. Remote postings without adequate infrastructure or family support deter many female teachers. Weak enforcement of supportive policies, such as maternity leave or professional development, reduces women’s chances of advancement.
Female teachers face a dual burden of domestic responsibilities and professional demands, leading to high attrition especially in rural or remote postings. Limited promotion opportunities, lack of mentorship, and gender-biased leadership practices demotivate women. Poor working and living conditions in schools, such as insecurity and inadequate housing, discourage retention. Absence of female role models and professional networks contributes to feelings of isolation. Societal biases continue to perceive male teachers as more capable of handling senior pupils, creating a hostile and demoralizing work environment for female teachers.
