CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introductions

This section presents discussion of the study inline with study objective as discussed with several authors

2.1 Socio-Economic Factors

School dropout remains a pressing global issue, with socio-economic factors playing a pivotal role in learners’ discontinuation of formal education. According to UNESCO (2021), over 244 million children and youth were out of school globally, with a substantial number attributed to poverty, child labour, and household financial instability. Socio-economic status, often measured through indicators such as income level, parental occupation, and educational attainment, has been consistently linked to educational outcomes. Learners from low-income families frequently face barriers such as inadequate school supplies, lack of access to meals, and the need to contribute to household income, all of which compromise their ability to remain in school (UNICEF, 2020).

In many developing countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, poverty is a dominant factor influencing school dropout. Families living below the poverty line often struggle to meet the indirect costs of schooling, such as uniforms, transport, and scholastic materials. For example, in Uganda, the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS, 2021) reported that about 21.4% of children aged 6–17 years had never attended school or had dropped out, mainly due to the inability of their families to afford educational-related expenses. This economic pressure also leads children, especially boys, into early labor markets while girls are more likely to drop out due to early marriages or teenage pregnancies a trend that is more prevalent in impoverished households (World Bank, 2020).

Parental education is another socio-economic variable influencing learners’ retention in school. Children whose parents have not received formal education are at a higher risk of dropping out, as these parents may undervalue education or lack the capacity to support their children academically (Filmer & Pritchett, 2001). In rural communities, especially, where illiteracy levels are high, children are often involved in agricultural or domestic work, prioritizing short-term economic contribution over long-term educational benefits (Oketch & Rolleston, 2007). Furthermore, family size also matters; in large families with many children, resources are often stretched thin, and some children may be forced to drop out to allow others to continue, or to take care of younger siblings (Lewin, 2009).

Gender disparities also intersect with socio-economic factors to influence school dropout rates. Girls from poor backgrounds face heightened risks due to gender norms, lack of menstrual hygiene facilities in schools, and vulnerability to sexual violence, particularly in unsafe commuting environments (UNESCO, 2022). A study in Kenya by Chimombo (2005) revealed that socio-cultural and economic constraints together accounted for high dropout rates among girls, especially in rural areas where poverty was deeply entrenched.

Additionally, household instability caused by factors such as parental separation, death of a parent, or migration can exacerbate the risk of dropping out. Orphaned or vulnerable children are more likely to assume adult responsibilities prematurely, limiting their chances of continuing with education (UNICEF, 2019). Moreover, in contexts where education is perceived as having limited returns due to high unemployment rates among graduates families may deprioritize formal education in favor of vocational or informal economic activities (Avenstrup et al., 2004).

Socio-economic determinants such as poverty, parental education, family size, gender inequality, and household instability critically influence school dropout rates. While free or subsidized education policies have been implemented in several countries to reduce financial barriers, the persistence of indirect costs and socio-cultural practices continues to undermine these efforts. Holistic interventions targeting household economic empowerment, social protection, and community sensitization are necessary to address the root causes of dropout among vulnerable learners.

2.2 The role of school-related factors such as infrastructure, teacher availability, and learning environment in contributing to dropout rates among learners.

School-related factors play a significant role in influencing learners’ retention and completion rates, with key elements such as infrastructure, teacher availability, and the overall learning environment being consistently cited in literature as major contributors to school dropout. According to UNESCO (2022), over 244 million children and youth were out of school globally, with poor school facilities and under-resourced learning environments often cited as core reasons for non-enrolment and dropout, particularly in low-income countries. Inadequate school infrastructure such as classrooms in poor condition, lack of separate toilets for girls and boys, lack of safe water sources, and insufficient learning materials can create an unwelcoming environment that discourages attendance and encourages early withdrawal from school (UNICEF, 2021). In Sub-Saharan Africa, where school infrastructure challenges are widespread, dropout rates remain alarmingly high, particularly among girls who are disproportionately affected by the absence of menstrual hygiene facilities (World Bank, 2020).

Teacher availability and quality also significantly influence dropout rates. A study by the Global Partnership for Education (GPE, 2021) revealed that schools with low teacher-to-student ratios, frequent teacher absenteeism, and underqualified teaching staff are associated with higher dropout rates. In many developing countries, including Uganda, teacher shortages have led to overcrowded classrooms and limited individualized attention, both of which contribute to disengagement and eventual dropout. For instance, the Ministry of Education and Sports in Uganda reported that in 2020, the national average pupil-teacher ratio stood at 43:1 in public primary schools, with some rural schools experiencing ratios as high as 70:1, further weakening the quality of instruction and learner support.

Furthermore, the learning environment, encompassing school climate, safety, and teacher-learner relationships, is crucial in sustaining learner interest and engagement. Studies have shown that a positive school climate characterized by respect, support, and active engagement encourages attendance and academic perseverance (OECD, 2018). In contrast, a hostile or unsafe school environment, including exposure to bullying, corporal punishment, or teacher neglect, has been strongly correlated with higher dropout rates (Plan International, 2020). In Uganda, research by UWEZO (2021) found that learners who felt unsafe or unvalued in school were twice as likely to drop out compared to those who reported feeling secure and supported.

Evidence from both global and national studies underscores the importance of addressing school-related factors such as infrastructure deficiencies, inadequate teacher availability, and poor learning environments in tackling the dropout crisis. Addressing these barriers is essential for ensuring that learners remain enrolled, motivated, and successful in their educational journeys. Without these improvements, dropout rates are likely to persist, undermining the broader goals of universal education and social development.

2.3 Impact of parental involvement and cultural beliefs on learners’ retention and completion

Parental involvement and cultural beliefs play a pivotal role in influencing learners’ retention across various educational contexts. Research globally indicates that active parental engagement significantly enhances students’ academic achievement and their likelihood of remaining in school. According to Epstein (2018), when parents are involved in their children’s education by attending school meetings, monitoring homework, and maintaining regular communication with teachers students demonstrate improved attendance, higher grades, and stronger motivation to complete school. A study by Fan and Chen (2001) found that parental involvement accounts for up to 30% of student success indicators, including retention and progression through school levels. Similarly, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2020) emphasizes that effective home-school collaboration can reduce dropout rates, especially in low-income communities where learners face external pressures to abandon education.

On the other hand, cultural beliefs can either reinforce or undermine efforts to keep children in school. In many African societies, including Uganda, traditional norms sometimes prioritize early marriage for girls and informal labor for boys over formal education (Moyi, 2011). This cultural orientation often leads to poor retention, particularly among female learners. For example, in Uganda, the Ministry of Education and Sports (2021) reported that early pregnancies and child marriages driven by cultural expectations accounted for over 40% of dropouts among girls in upper primary and lower secondary school. Furthermore, some communities perceive education as unnecessary for children with disabilities or believe that only boys should be educated, contributing to discriminatory practices that lower school retention among marginalized groups (Katahoire, 2010).

The interaction between parental involvement and cultural beliefs is also significant. In settings where cultural norms discourage female education or undervalue academic success, parental support may be minimal or conditional, affecting learners’ motivation and persistence. However, culturally responsive parental engagement where schools acknowledge and integrate families’ cultural backgrounds into school practices can counteract negative beliefs and foster retention (Gay, 2010). Therefore, improving learners’ retention requires a dual approach: promoting inclusive parental involvement and transforming harmful cultural norms through community-based sensitization and educational policy reforms.

2.4 summary of the literature

The review underscores poverty, child labour, and financial instability as dominant global barriers to school retention, with over 244 million children out of school globally (UNESCO, 2021). In Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly Uganda, learners from low-income families face challenges like lack of school supplies and the pressure to contribute to family income (UBOS, 2021; UNICEF, 2020). Parental education levels, family size, and gender disparities also exacerbate dropout risks, especially for girls who face early marriages and teenage pregnancies in poor households (World Bank, 2020). Cultural undervaluing of education and household instability further hinder retention (Avenstrup et al., 2004; Filmer & Pritchett, 2001).

Inadequate infrastructure, such as dilapidated classrooms, poor sanitation, and a lack of teaching materials, creates uninviting environments that push learners out of school (UNESCO, 2022). High pupil-teacher ratios and teacher absenteeism, particularly in rural Ugandan schools, reduce learning effectiveness and increase disengagement (GPE, 2021; Ministry of Education and Sports, 2020). Furthermore, hostile school climates marked by bullying, corporal punishment, or neglect negatively impact learners’ sense of safety and belonging, increasing the likelihood of dropout (Plan International, 2020; UWEZO, 2021).

Active parental engagement in education positively correlates with learners’ academic success and school retention (Epstein, 2018; Fan & Chen, 2001). Conversely, traditional cultural practices such as early marriage for girls and prioritizing labor over education undermine educational retention, particularly among marginalized groups (Moyi, 2011; Katahoire, 2010). Where cultural norms devalue formal education, especially for girls and children with disabilities, dropout rates are notably high. However, culturally responsive engagement between schools and families can help mitigate harmful beliefs and improve retention (Gay, 2010).

CHAPTER THREE

RESEACH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the research methodology that guided the study. It includes the research design, sample size, sampling procedures, research instruments, procedure for data collection, data analysis and ethical consideration.

3.2 Research design

The study used a case study research design. A case study research design is a qualitative research method that focuses on in-depth exploration and analysis of a specific individual, group, event, or phenomenon. It involved conducting a detailed investigation of a particular case to gain insights, understand complex issues, and generate rich, context-specific data (Rashid et al., 2019).

A case study design will be used so that the information about the factors contributing to school dropout in among leaners in government aided primary school a case study of St.luke primary school goma division and this will be presented in chapter four of the dissertation. The information presented in the above chapter will be collected from Schools in Kayunga. The researcher applied qualitative approaches in order to get information from the respondents.

3.3 Population

A population refers to any collection of specified group of human beings or of non-human entities such as objects, educational institutions, time units, geographical areas, and prices of wheat or salaries drawn by individuals (Suphanchaimat, 2021). The study population for this study included;

1. Head Teachers who supervise the teaching and learning
2. teachers who are tasked with the teaching and assessment of learners’ and
3. Pupils who are acted upon/taught.

3.3.1 Sample size

It is impossible to study the whole targeted population of the study and therefore the researcher will take a sample of the population this is also further supported by Mugenda, (2003) who notes that a researcher should choose a sample out of the whole targeted population. A sample is a subset of the population that comprises members selected from the population. Using Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) table for sample size determination approach, a sample size of 86 respondents will bw selected from the total population of 110 of both, leaners, Teachers and Head Teachers.

Table 1: Table for Determining Sample Size for a Finite population

Table showing the sample size of respondents

Source: Primary Data

3.4 Sampling procedure

In this study, the researcher will use purposive sampling technique to choose respondents. Purposive sampling is a form of non-probability sampling in which a researcher relies on his or her own judgment when choosing members of the population to participate in the study (Ames, Glenton, & Lewin, 2019). White (2005) explains that in purposive sampling, the concern is to acquire in depth knowledge from those who are in position to give it, this sampling technique will be used to access a particular group of people whose profile fits the context of this study.

3.4.1 Simple Random Sampling Technique (SRS)

It is a probability sampling method where every individual or element in the population has an equal chance of being selected. This Technique will be used for selecting pupils since they are many.

3.5 Research instruments

These are data collection methods and tools. These will include; interview guide, document review, focus group discussion guide and observation guide:

3.5.1 Interview guide

Interviews refer to a structured or semi-structured conversation between two or more individuals, typically conducted for the purpose of gathering information, exchanging ideas, or eliciting responses to specific questions (Odiya, 2009). Interviews are commonly used in research, journalism, recruitment, and various professional settings to collect qualitative or quantitative data, gain insights, and explore people’s perspectives and experiences (Yin, 2009). In an interview, one person takes on the role of the interviewer, who poses questions and guides the conversation, while the other person or people being interviewed are the respondents or interviewees, who provide answers and share their thoughts, knowledge, or opinions. The interviewer may use a predetermined set of questions or engage in a more flexible, open-ended conversation, depending on the purpose and nature of the interview (Yin, 2009). The study will  use interview guide to get response from teachers and Head teachers on the interview questions that will be asked regarding the topic under investigation.

3.5.2 Documentary Review

Documentary review is a research method that involves the systematic and critical analysis of existing documents, such as reports, policy papers, and archives, to collect data and insights related to a specific research question (Karppinen, & Moe, 2019). It is a useful technique for researchers who want to investigate a particular topic or issue in-depth, but who do not have access to primary data sources, such as surveys or interviews (Karppinen, & Moe, 2019).

The process of documentary review typically involves a thorough examination of the available documents, with a focus on identifying relevant information and data. The researcher will use various methods to analyze the documents, such as content analysis or discourse analysis, to identify patterns, themes, and key issues related to the research question (Dalglish, Khalid, & McMahon, 2020).

Overall, documentary review is a valuable research method that involves the critical analysis of existing documents to gather data and insights related to a specific research question. It can be used on its own or in conjunction with other research methods, and can help to provide a more comprehensive understanding of complex issues and topics (Tight, 2019).

3.5.3 Focus group discussion

A focus group discussion is a qualitative research method that involves a group of individuals who share their experiences, beliefs, opinions, and attitudes on a particular topic or issue (Morgan, 1997). The goal of focus group discussions is to gain a deeper understanding of people’s perceptions and attitudes towards a specific topic. Focus groups are typically conducted by a trained moderator who facilitates the discussion among the participants. The moderator guides the discussion by asking open-ended questions, encouraging participants to share their thoughts and opinions, and ensuring that everyone has a chance to speak.  The focus group discussion can be used to gather information on a variety of topics, such as consumer behavior, product design, public opinion, and social issues (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). Focus group discussions are particularly useful when the researcher wants to explore the underlying reasons behind people’s attitudes and behaviors. One of the key advantages of focus group discussions is that they allow for the collection of rich, detailed data that can provide insights into people’s thoughts and feelings (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). Additionally, focus group discussions can be a cost-effective way to gather information from a large number of people in a relatively short period of time.

However, focus group discussions also have some limitations. For example, the results may not be representative of the larger population, and the group dynamics can influence the results (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). Additionally, the moderator’s skills can also impact the quality of the data collected.

The focus group discussion will be subjected to the pupils who will be divided into groups of 10 to discuss a specific topic that will be presented to them.

Top of Form

3.8 Validity and reliability

It is vital that the researcher ensures the validity and reliability of the research instruments. This will be done by pretesting the data collection instruments using a few selected respondents from each category of the population to ensure that the questions are clear and in line with the research objectives.

3.8.1 Validity

Validity is defined as the extent to which results can be accurately interpreted and generalized to other populations (Oso & Onen, 2008). Onyinkwa, (2013) validity is defined as the degree to which results obtained by the research instrument correctly represented to the phenomenon understudy and Mugenda (1999) as the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences which are based on the research results.

3.8.2 Reliability

According to Mugenda and Mugenda, (2003) reliability is the measure of the extent to which research instruments are able to provide the same results upon being tested repeatedly. Crobach’s coefficient alpha (a) as recommended by Amin, (2005, P.302) was used to test the reliability of the research instrument.

3.9 Data collection procedure

After formulation of data collection instruments, the researcher took the tools to the supervisor for approval. The researcher seeks for an introductory letter from the office of the Head of Department of Education; this introductory letter was presented to the respondents of the School to obtain permission to conduct the study. Thereafter, the instruments will be issued out to few selected respondents for pretesting. Pretesting will help the researcher to get the feedback on whether the respondents are able to interpret and answer the questions in line with research purpose.    

3.10 Data Analysis

Data analysis of qualitative data involves the systematic examination and interpretation of textual or non-numerical data to uncover patterns, themes, and insights. Qualitative data analysis aims to understand the meaning, context, and subjective experiences captured in the data (Stake, 1995). Here are some key steps and approaches in analyzing qualitative data:

Familiarization with the Data: the researcher will begin by immersing himself in the data to gain a comprehensive understanding of the content. This will involve reading or listening to the data repeatedly, taking notes, and becoming familiar with the nuances, perspectives, and details captured in the data. The researcher also examines closely, and initial codes or labels that are assigned to capture different concepts, ideas, or patterns. This process will involve breaking down the data into smaller units, identifying themes, and generating descriptive codes. The researcher also will analyze the themes and later the researcher also will use Data Exploration and Interpretation.

3.11 Ethical Considerations

The researcher will protect respondents against potentially harmful effects of participation, for example, stress, hunger and loss of self-esteem. To achieve this, participants will be requested not to disclose their identity anywhere on the questionnaire. The respondents informed about the procedures of the study and they asked to make their decision to either participate or withdraw from participation. The researcher provides information on the purpose of the study, benefits of the study to the respondents, expected duration of participation and procedures that will be used.

The researcher seeks the consent of the participants and informed participants who would be willing to participate that their involvement in the study is purely voluntary. The willing participants will be assured that the information that they would provide be used for not any other purpose except for this research. Information relating to the respondents to this study kept and not disclosed to any other persons and all information collected will be kept anonymous. Works of other scholars  always be cited by quoting the sources of information.