IMPROVING EXISTING SPRING WATER SOURCE PROTECTION IN HILLY AREAS AFFECTED BY CONTINUOUS SHIFTING OF THE SPRING EYE: A CASE STUDY OF KARAMBI SUB-COUNTY, KASESE DISTRICT

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the background of the study, problem statement, purpose of the study, research objectives, research questions, scope of the study, significance of the study, and justification for the research.

1.1 Background of the Study

1.1.1 Global Context

According to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by all United Nations member states in 2015, billions of people worldwide still lack access to safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, and handwashing services. SDG 6 calls for the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030. The goal recognizes that social development and economic prosperity depend on the sustainable management of freshwater resources and ecosystems. It emphasizes universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water, increased water-use efficiency across all sectors, sustainable withdrawal and supply of freshwater resources, and the reduction of water scarcity by 2030 (UN-SDG 6, 2015).

1.1.2 Regional Context

Access to safe water, adequate sanitation, and proper hygiene practices can significantly reduce the burden of disease. According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2012), diarrhoeal diseases account for approximately 3.6% of the global disease burden and cause an estimated 1.5 million deaths annually. WHO (2014) further estimated that 58% of this burden, equivalent to about 842,000 deaths annually, is attributable to unsafe water, poor sanitation, and inadequate hygiene practices. This includes approximately 361,000 deaths among children under five years of age, mainly in low-income countries.

In rural Sub-Saharan Africa, most households with access to improved water sources rely on boreholes fitted with hand pumps (Sansom & Koestler, 2009). Although the exact number of boreholes in Africa is unknown, approximately 60,000 new hand pumps are installed annually. These facilities are generally communal and serve multiple users within a community. While expanding access to improved water sources remains a priority, the challenge extends beyond providing water services to over 300 million people without access; it also involves maintaining reliable services for the approximately 670 million people who already depend on these water sources (WHO & UNICEF, 2015).

In Uganda, the major technologies used for rural water supply include deep boreholes (44%), shallow wells (24%), and protected springs (21%), while the remaining 11% consists of piped water schemes and rainwater harvesting systems (Ministry of Water and Environment Sector Performance Report, 2018). Deep boreholes therefore constitute the dominant rural water supply technology. Nevertheless, protected springs remain an important source of water, particularly in mountainous and hilly regions where groundwater naturally emerges at the surface.

Access to safe water and sanitation is essential for improving public health, reducing the incidence of waterborne diseases, enhancing household productivity, and alleviating poverty. In Kasese District, particularly in Karambi Sub-County, which is characterized by hilly terrain and dispersed settlements, spring water sources such as protected springs, unprotected springs, and open ponds provide a feasible and affordable water supply option. However, these water sources are vulnerable to contamination and physical deterioration if not adequately protected. Continuous shifting of the spring eye often compromises the functionality of protected spring structures, leading to reduced water quality and supply reliability.

Uganda launched Vision 2040 in April 2013 with the goal of transforming the country from a predominantly peasant society into a modern and prosperous nation within thirty years. Among its targets is the provision of safe piped water to 100% of the population by 2030, compared to only 15% coverage in 2010. In line with this vision, the Ministry of Water and Environment has prioritized increasing rural water supply coverage and ensuring equitable access to safe and clean water sources for all communities.

1.2 Problem Statement

Karambi Sub-County in Kasese District is characterized by mountainous terrain where spring water serves as the primary source of domestic water supply for many households. Although several springs have been protected, the spring eye frequently shifts from its original location due to geological and environmental factors. This phenomenon presents significant challenges in the construction and maintenance of durable protected spring water systems.

As a result, many protected springs experience reduced discharge, empty delivery pipes, or complete drying up. Out of the 30 protected springs in the sub-county, only 11 remain functional, while the others have either shifted or dried up. These springs serve an estimated population of 35,000 people across four parishes. Only two parishes have partial access to piped water systems serving approximately 12,000 people. Consequently, a substantial proportion of the population relies on unreliable and often unsafe water sources.

Furthermore, the conventional spring protection designs and retaining wall structures are often expensive and technically complex, making them difficult for local communities to reconstruct or maintain when failures occur. This situation has increased dependence on government interventions while exposing communities to poor sanitation conditions and unsafe water consumption. Therefore, there is a need to develop an improved, cost-effective, and sustainable spring protection design utilizing locally available materials, including waste plastic bottles and clay soils, to enhance the durability and functionality of protected springs in Karambi Sub-County.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to improve existing protected spring water sources and reduce construction costs through the use of locally available materials and recycled waste plastic bottles as construction units combined with clay soils as protective materials. The study also aims to identify the major challenges affecting protected spring water sources and propose practical and sustainable solutions for Karambi Sub-County in Kasese District.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

1.4.1 General Objective

The overall objective of this study is to improve the design and protection of existing spring water sources in order to enhance their durability, ensure a reliable water supply, and improve sanitation conditions within the communities that depend on them.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

i. To establish the factors contributing to the shifting of water flow in protected springs in Karambi Sub-County, Kasese District.

ii. To identify suitable protection methods that can improve the performance and sustainability of existing spring water sources in Karambi Sub-County.

iii. To develop an improved protection system design capable of extending the operational lifespan of protected springs in Karambi Sub-County.

iv. To determine locally available materials that can be effectively utilized in improving spring water source protection in Karambi Sub-County.

1.5 Research Questions

i. What factors contribute to the shifting of water flow in protected springs in Karambi Sub-County, Kasese District?

ii. What protection methods can be adopted to improve the performance of existing spring water sources in Karambi Sub-County?

iii. How can the design of existing protected springs be improved to increase their lifespan and functionality?

iv. What locally available materials can be utilized to enhance spring water source protection in Karambi Sub-County?

1.6 Scope of the Study

1.6.1 Content Scope

The study will focus on improving the protection of existing spring water sources in hilly areas, with particular emphasis on Karambi Sub-County in Kasese District. Specifically, the study will investigate the factors responsible for the shifting of spring water flow, identify suitable protection methods, determine locally available construction materials, and propose an improved design for spring protection systems. Material testing will be conducted, and one faulty spring will be reconstructed as a pilot demonstration using the proposed design and materials.

1.6.2 Geographical Scope

The study will be conducted in Karambi Sub-County, located in Kasese District in western Uganda, north of Lake George. Kasese District lies within the Rwenzori region and is situated approximately at latitude 0°11’12″N and longitude 30°05’17″E, with an average elevation of about 1,000 meters above sea level. According to the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS, 2014), the district has a population of approximately 101,679 people.

1.6.3 Time Scope

The study will be conducted over a period of six months, from December 2019 to May 2020. During this period, all research activities, including data collection, analysis, design development, material testing, and pilot implementation, will be undertaken.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will assist district authorities and water sector stakeholders in identifying the most appropriate and economically viable water supply technologies for Karambi Sub-County. The study will contribute to improving investment decisions and ensuring value for money in rural water supply projects.

Additionally, the findings will provide feedback to stakeholders regarding technical challenges affecting protected spring water systems and recommend practical solutions for improving their sustainability and functionality. This may significantly reduce the long-term costs associated with water source construction, maintenance, and rehabilitation.

The study will also contribute to academic knowledge in the fields of water supply engineering, spring protection design, and technical auditing of rural water supply technologies. Furthermore, the proposed use of innovative and locally available materials such as waste plastic bottles and clay soils may provide alternative approaches to spring water source protection, construction, and conservation.

1.8 Justification of the Study

Reliable access to safe water is essential for domestic, agricultural, institutional, and industrial activities. In Karambi Sub-County, the shifting and drying of spring water sources have created significant challenges for local communities that depend on these sources for their daily water needs. Many residents are forced to travel long distances to access water for drinking, cooking, washing, livestock rearing, and other household activities.

The persistent failure of protected springs due to shifting spring eyes has reduced the effectiveness of existing water supply infrastructure and negatively affected community livelihoods. Therefore, there is a pressing need to identify sustainable and affordable solutions that can improve the protection and functionality of spring water sources. This study is justified by the need to address these challenges and contribute towards improving water security, public health, and community welfare in Karambi Sub-County and similar hilly regions.