CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

 This chapter reviews the literature regarding the water quality parameters and functionality of rural water sources. It focuses on what other scholars have talked on the research topic. The presentations are based on the research objectives set in chapter one of the research.

Mountain springs emanating naturally from unconfined aquifers are the primary source of water for rural households in the Himalayan region. Due to the impacts of climate change on precipitation patterns such as rise in rainfall intensity, reduction in its temporal spread, and a marked decline in winter rain, coupled with other anthropogenic causes, the problem of dying springs is being increasingly felt across this region. This study was taken up in the Sikkim Himalaya, which has received limited attention despite being a part of the Eastern Himalaya global biodiversity hot spot. The objective of this study was to understand the basic characteristics of the springs and to demonstrate methods for reviving them. SandeepTambe,Ganasham Kharel,  .M.LArrawatia, (2011).

(According to ,Singh and Rawat 1985; Singh and Pande 1989; Valdiya and Bartarya 1989, 1991;Bisht and Srivastava 1995; Sahin and Hall 1996; Negi andJoshi 1996, 2004). These studies showed that spring discharge was a function of both the rainfall pattern and the recharge area characteristics ( Rai et al 1998; Negi and Joshi 1996;  Negiet al 2001). At the same time, it was also found to be afunction of the nature and character of the aquifers that feed many of these springs (ACWADAM and RMDD 2011).These studies also indicated that increasing instances of springs drying up or becoming seasonal. This has been attributed to growing impacts of population increase, erosion of the top soils, erratic rainfall patterns, deforestation, forest fires, and development activities(road building, building construction, etc.) adversely impacting the spring catchments. Consequently, a limited

amount of rainwater infiltrates to recharge the groundwater, thereby creating a hydrological imbalance.

.Change Climate change as the new threat Like many other places on Earth, the Himalaya are experiencing rapid climate change that is likely to significantly impact local ecosystems, biodiversity, agriculture, and human well-being (Chaudhary et al 2011).

Pratima et al. [7] studied that plastic bottles wall have been less costly as compare to bricks and also they provide greater strength than bricks. The PET bottles that are not recycled end up in landfills or as litter, and they take approximately 1000 years to biodegrade. This has resulted in plastic pollution problems in landfills, water ways and on the roadside, and this problem continues to grow along with the plastic bottle industry

2.1 Theoretical review

2.1.1 Occurrence of springs

Springs are found mainly in mountainous or hilly terrain. A spring may be defined as a place where a natural outflow of groundwater occurs. Spring water is usually fed from a sand or gravel water-bearing soil formation called an aquifer, or a water flow through fissured rock. Where solid or clay layers block the underground flow of water, it is forced upwards to the surface. The water may emerge either in the open as a spring, or invisibly as an outflow into a river, stream, lake or the sea

Figure 1: Occurrence of springs (Savary, I. 1973)

Where the water emerges in the form of a spring, it can easily be tapped. The oldest community water supplies were, in fact, often based on springs and they remain a favoured source, because the water usually has a high natural quality and intake arrangements are relatively straightforward. That suits both the engineers helping to design the water supply system, and the community members who will have to look after it. Because of their popularity, most natural springs have been developed in one way or another as drinking water sources. However, a proper feasibility study, application of some basic design principles and vigilance in protecting the spring and its catchment area will usually lead to improvements in the quantity, quality and sustainability of many such supplies. As in the rest of the book, there is an overriding principle that community members should be fully informed and closely involved indecisions about the tapping, use and protection of spring water sources.

2.1.2 Identification of springs sources

Local people, especially women (as drawers of water), but also farmers, hunters and grazers, have a good knowledge of the location of springs and their characteristics. These people are the primary sources of information in the identification process. In the dry season, green vegetation in a dry area may also be an indication of a spring source. Some springs form small ponds where animals drink and people may well also scoop water from there. Others flow as small streams in valleys and can be traced back to the source. The source, though, is not necessarily the first upstream point at which the stream emerges from the ground. In some cases streams may be buried for quite a length and there can be added risks of contamination unless the investigation continues further upstream to locate the true spring.

2.1.3 Types of spring sources

Springs are classified according to the conditions under which water flows to them. Some surface under pressure, while others do so as a result of discontinuities in the strata that held the water underground. For instance, in a seepage or filtration spring the water percolates from many small openings in porous ground, while in fracture spring water comes from joints or fractures in otherwise solid rock, and for tubular springs the outflow opening is more or less round.

2.1.3.1 Gravity depression springs

Gravity springs occur in unconfined aquifers. Where the ground surface dips below the water table, any such depression will be filled with water

Figure 2: Ground Depression Spring (SMET & WIJK, 2002).

Gravity depression springs usually have a small yield and a further reduction occurs when dry season conditions or nearby groundwater withdrawals result in the lowering of the groundwater table.

2.1.3.4 Artesian fissure spring

Artesian fissure springs form an important variant of this type of spring. Again the water emerges under pressure, this time through a fissure in the impervious overburden. Fissure springs exist in many countries and are widely used for community water supplies.                                       Fingure3, Artisan fissure spring (SMET & WIJK, 2002).

2.2 The factors contributing to the shifting of water flow in the protected springs

Groundwater levels change for many reasons. Some changes are due to natural phenomena, Water-level changes can be divided into several categories. There are short-term changes that can only be seen when water-level measurements are made many times a day. There are long term changes that can only be seen after data are collected for many years. There are minor changes of only a few hundredths of a foot, and changes that are hundreds of feet. Shifting of water flow is generally due to one of three major factors: 1) change in the volume of water stored in the aquifer, 2) changes in atmospheric pressure, and 3) changes caused by aquifer deformation. Many of the causes of water-level changes can be easily recognized simply by the shape of the groundwater-level hydrograph. Other changes are more subtle, and their causes are not immediately recognizable and others are caused by man’s activities (Gribovszki, 2010).

Water floor changes due to Aquifer Storage Changes

Groundwater is not static. It is part of a dynamic flow system. It moves into and through aquifers from areas of high water-level elevation to areas of low water-level elevation. Groundwater-level fluctuations due to aquifer storage changes involve either the addition or extraction of water from the aquifer, both through natural means and human involvement.

Groundwater recharge occurs naturally where the earth materials are sufficiently permeable to allow water to move downward through them. It occurs most easily in unconfined aquifers where water provided by precipitation moves downward from land surface until the water reaches the water table.

Ground water floor changes due to Aquifer Deformation

Water-level changes due to aquifer deformation are commonly due to either Earth tides, or earthquakes. Other external stresses caused by heavy trucks and trains can also cause groundwater fluctuations in some aquifers. When most people think of tides, they immediately think of the change in sea level caused by gravitational attraction of the Sun and Moon along with other factors (Herring, 2012)

Groundwater flow can be affected to a small degree (a few hundredths of a foot) by the weight of passing trucks or trains, provided they are close enough to the well. Many years ago the observation wells were equipped with graphic recorders that used paper, pen, and ink to record the water-level hydrograph. Any change in water level more than a few thousandths of a foot was instantly recorded on the paper chart. The chart paper advanced through the recorder at the rate of 1.2 inches each 24 hours.

Nwanya (2019), states that Events like passing trains and heavy trucks were so short that the hydrograph change appeared as small vertical lines just above the normal water-level line.

Earthquakes cause some of the most dramatic stress-related groundwater-level fluctuations that are observed. Seismically induced water-level fluctuations, also called hydroseisms, are commonly observed following major earthquakes. Energy released by earthquakes travels great distances in the form of several different types of waves. Wells relatively close to a major earthquake may experience permanent water level changes but typically the earthquake causes water level in a well to fluctuate for perhaps a few minutes then return to normal level (Zhang, 2019).

2.2.1 Rapid environmental assessment

A rapid assessment of potential environmental impact is a sensible first step. This involves identifying possible environmental consequences of developing a spring. These can include risks of landslides, erosion, or contamination of the source. The environmental assessment includes investigating the flow direction of surface run-off above the spring; human activities and water uses in the catchment area, i.e. habitation, farming, grazing, etc.; and the type of plants growing in the catchment or recharge area. If there are people living in the catchment/recharge area, they are likely to contaminate the groundwater through their own waste and their activities such as cattle holding or agriculture using artificial fertilizer or chemicals. But it may be very difficult to relocate them.

2.3 The suitable protection method that can be used to improve the protection of water springs

According to Calow, (2010), protecting a spring is cheaper than digging a well or borehole. Once a spring is protected it is relatively easy to run pipes from the spring closer to the community. To protect the area around a spring, fence the area all around it and dig a drainage ditch to carry away surface runoff and waste. This will also keep animals out.  Plant native trees near the spring to protect it even more. Trees will prevent erosion, and make it a more pleasant place to collect water.

Figure 3 Protected the area around the spring

Building a spring box to capture the water

A spring box is a covered container made of masonry, brick, or concrete that helps protect spring water from contamination. A spring box also makes it easier to collect water at the spring or direct water into pipes to community taps or storage tanks. The kind of spring box that is best depends on the lay of the land and the materials that are available.

Parts of a spring box

• Drainage canal prevents water from flowing over the spring box
• Sand or gravel
• Water flows from here
• Water level
• Removable cover to see and clean inside
• Overflow pipe with screen to keep insects out
• Screen to filter out sand and soil
• Outlet pipe
• Scour pipe to flush out spring box

This shows one kind of spring box with the hillside cut away to show what is inside.

Pipes and spring boxes need cleaning often

Spring boxes need to be checked to make sure the spring continues to provide safe water. Silt, leaves, dead animals, and other things can collect in the pipes and spring box and block the pipes or contaminate the water. Put a wire screen on the pipe leading into the spring box to prevent unsafe things from entering pipes. Cleaning the screen every now and again will make sure there is a steady flow of water.

2.2.5 Design and construction

The design and construction of a spring-fed water supply for a specific location must

• be appropriate for the specific local conditions,
• prevent pathogenic contamination and pollution,
• be reliable in terms of quantity, and
• have no adverse environmental consequences.

2.2.6 Design

The major components in the design of a spring-source water supply system include the actual spring water collection area – where water from the aquifer is actually being channelled to a single discharge point – the supply pipe, the collection chamber, and the outlet to a storage tank. The collection area is a critical part and involves the tapping of water from the aquifer. Two methods are used to collect the groundwater. One is by dry stone masonry and the other is by perforated pipes.

Figure5: Design method for spring water (SMET & WIJK, 2002).

Experience has shown that roots may grow in the collection area. The roots can become so dense that they obstruct the flow, thereby reducing output from the source and also generating back pressure that could cause damage to the aquifer hydraulics. Easy access to the collection area enables the caretaker to remove the obstructing roots. Two supply pipes are used in the collection area to channel the drain water to the collection chamber. The first pipe channels all the discharge during times of low yield. The second ensures that there is no excess water backing up in the collection area during maximum yields, as this could obstruct the natural flow in the aquifer and create back pressure.Savary, I. (1973) village water system,(by A.Tayong cited by 1,related article).

A spring is a natural groundwater source which is protected concrete headwall or spring box around the eye of the spring (where water emerges) that prevents direct contamination (WHO, 1997).

There are a number of designs for protected springs, all of which utilize some form of retaining wall or spring box with an excavated area backfilled with loose material to encourage spring flow towards the outlet. A protective cover usually overlies the excavated area and the area is fenced for some distance to prevent direct access by humans and animals. One design that has been used in periurban areas is shown (Howard et al., 2001)

2.2.6.1 Catchment protection

Protection of the catchment has two main objectives:

• to improve the recharge of the aquifer, and
• to prevent contamination of the groundwater.

Catchment protection therefore involves planning, implementation and motivation to refrain from or substantially reduce human and economic activities that could cause adverse effects on the quality and quantity of the water from the spring. Production of fodder grass and crops not requiring application of chemicals are permitted, but the feeding of animals on this fodder grass should be outside the catchment area.

Protection rules and other decisions are preferably made by the local (user) communities after analysing the situation and the most suitable actions that can be taken locally. Although trees/plants stabilize the soil and reduce erosion, they should be selected to avoid those that will compete for water (such as eucalyptus). Useful trees are, for example, pine or indigenous species (consult the Forestry Department and use local wisdom).There is many problems associated with the protection of the catchment, including land ownership, change of habits and traditional beliefs.

2.3 Summary of the literature review

From the review of the related literature, it is observed that the undertaking of the improvement on the existing spring water source protection In hilly areas using a case study of Karambi sub county in Kasese district needs a feasibility exploration in regard to the existence of the spring water sources and also needs the clear identification of the type of the spring source that are existing. Supply of safe water in places of Karambi Sub county necessitate the sensitization of the local communities, critically assessing the nature and tools of ground or surface water resources. The technology for use in the process should be readily available and the societal obligation to maintain the system. The critical understanding and employment of these, results in provision of adequate supplies that meet the demand, which culminates in the improved lifestyles, less medical expenses and in the end will result in better livelihood in the sub county.

2.4 Conceptual framework

The researcher conceptualizes the research topic into independent variable and dependent variable. He, thus, conceptualizes the improvement on the spring water sources as the independent variable and the spring water sources in hilly areas as the dependent variable. The independent variable has been further itemized into the technical, social and economic feasibility as the dependent variable has been divided into boreholes and pipe water schemes accordingly.