DETERMINANTS OF THE LOW REPRESENTATION OF FEMALE TEACHERS IN UPPER PRIMARY CLASSES IN BULERA SUB-COUNTY PRIMARY SCHOOLS, MITYANA DISTRICT

ABSTRACT

This study was about determinants of the low representation of female teachers in upper primary classes in bulera sub-county primary schools, mityana district. The study was guided by the following objectives; to examine the socio-cultural factors that influences the representation of female teachers in the upper primary section, to assess institutional and policy-related barriers affecting the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools and to explore the personal and professional challenges that discourages female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions.

The study used a case study research design. A case study research design is a qualitative research method that focuses on in-depth exploration and analysis of a specific individual, group, event or phenomenon. The study was conducted in Mityana district, the study population for this study included teachers in upper primary school and head teachers, the population included 15 teachers from upper primary school and three head teachers, the respondents was from the school of, Buyagga, Bulera Islamic P/S, Mwererwe Primary Schools, all from Bulera Sub- County Mityana District.

The study concludes that the underrepresentation of female teachers in upper primary sections is driven by a complex interplay of socio-cultural, institutional, and personal factors. Deeply rooted gender norms and societal expectations continue to associate women with nurturing roles in lower primary, while positioning men as more suited for authority in upper primary, thereby limiting women’s opportunities and confidence. At the institutional level, implicit biases, lack of transparent policies, limited professional support, and unsupportive working conditions further hinder the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers. Additionally, personal and professional challenges including heavy workloads, family responsibilities, limited mentorship, and low self-confidence discourage many women from taking up or remaining in upper primary roles. Collectively, these factors reinforce persistent gender disparities and highlight the need for holistic and inclusive interventions to promote equitable representation in upper primary education.

The study recommends a comprehensive approach to addressing the underrepresentation of female teachers in upper primary education by tackling socio-cultural, institutional, and personal barriers simultaneously. There is a need for community sensitization to challenge entrenched gender stereotypes and promote positive perceptions of women’s capabilities in upper primary teaching, alongside strengthening the implementation of gender-responsive policies that ensure transparency and equity in recruitment, promotion, and deployment. Schools should adopt supportive institutional measures such as flexible working arrangements, consideration of maternity needs, and fair workload distribution to enable female teachers to balance professional and family responsibilities effectively. Additionally, expanding access to targeted professional development, mentorship, and capacity-building programs will enhance female teachers’ competence and confidence, while the introduction of motivation and retention strategies including recognition, incentives, improved working conditions, and clear career progression pathways will help reduce burnout and encourage more women to take up and remain in upper primary teaching positions.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This chapter includes the introduction, background information, statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, objectives of the study, research questions, scope of the study, significance of the study, operational definition of key terms in the topic, limitations of the study and delimitations.

1.1 Background

Globally, research shows that the low representation of female teachers in upper primary and higher levels of education is influenced by multiple interconnected factors some of these include gender stereotypes, cultural perceptions of women’s roles, family responsibilities, and institutional barriers such as recruitment practices and limited career progression opportunities (Moraa, 2022).

Although women make up more than 60% of the global teaching workforce in primary education, their numbers significantly decline in upper primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. The disparity is often more pronounced in rural and conflict-affected areas, where gender norms are more rigid and infrastructural challenges limit female teacher retention (Avolio, Chávez, & Vílchez-Román, 2020).

At the continental level, Sub-Saharan Africa faces more acute gender disparities in education systems. Structural inequalities, early marriage, limited access to higher education, and lack of gender-sensitive policies contribute to the low number of female teachers in upper primary and above (Gobena, 2014).

Regionally, East African countries such as Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, and Uganda share similar challenges regarding the representation of female teachers in upper primary, in these countries it is noted that cultural expectations that assign domestic and childcare roles to women, along with the lack of female-friendly school environments such as inadequate maternity provisions, staff accommodation, or security in rural areas discourage women from accepting postings or promotions in upper primary schools. Moreover, the progression from lower to upper primary teaching roles often requires additional training or qualifications, which women may find difficult to pursue due to social or economic constraints (Uwizeyimana, & Mathevula, 2018).

In Uganda, the issue is particularly concerning this is because despite efforts by the Ministry of Education and Sports to promote gender equity in education through policies such as the Gender in Education Policy (2009) and affirmative action in teacher training admissions, the representation of female teachers in upper primary schools remains disproportionately low. National data reveals a sharp decline in the number of female teachers from lower to upper primary levels, with male teachers dominating in Primary Five to Primary Seven.

Contributing factors include limited access to in-service training for women, societal norms that discourage women from teaching older children and the rural-urban divide where female teachers are less likely to be posted or retained in remote areas. Additionally, female teachers often face challenges balancing professional demands with family responsibilities, which are intensified by inadequate support systems at the school and community levels (Ceci et al., 2009).

In light of these challenges, this study seeks to explore the multifaceted factors contributing to the low representation of female teachers in the upper primary section, with a specific focus on the Ugandan context. Understanding these factors is crucial for informing gender-responsive policies and interventions aimed at promoting equity and inclusiveness in the education sector.

1.2 Problem statement

The low representation of female teachers in upper primary sections of, Mityana District, presents a significant educational and gender equity challenge. Despite national efforts to promote female participation in education, including Uganda’s Gender in Education Policy (2009), the transition of women from lower to upper primary teaching positions remains limited.

This trend mirrors broader national and regional patterns where women, though forming the majority of the primary teaching workforce, are disproportionately underrepresented in upper primary levels particularly in rural and underserved areas.

According to the Uganda National Examinations Board (UNEB, 2022), male teachers constitute more than 70% of the teaching staff in Primary Five to Seven in rural districts, illustrating the persistent gender imbalance.

In Mityana district preliminary school-level data and stakeholder interviews indicate that deeply rooted socio-cultural norms such as the perception that teaching older pupils, particularly boys, is more appropriately undertaken by male teachers significantly constrain female participation in upper primary classes. In addition, structural and institutional barriers, including limited opportunities for career advancement, inadequate accommodation facilities for female teachers, and rigid school policies, have collectively impeded the effective recruitment, retention, and promotion of women in upper primary teaching positions.

Family-related responsibilities, including childcare and household obligations, further hinder female teachers from accepting or sustaining roles in upper primary levels, particularly in rural postings like mityana district rural settings where support systems are minimal, Additionally, the requirement for additional academic qualifications to teach in upper primary often excludes women who are unable to upgrade due to time, financial limitations, or lack of institutional support.

According to the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES, 2021), more than 60% of female primary school teachers remain at Grade III certificate level, which limits their eligibility to teach upper classes that require higher pedagogical skills. Security concerns, especially for female teachers posted in isolated areas of Mityana District, also contribute to the reluctance to take up such roles.

Therefore, the problem sought to address is the persistent low representation of female teachers in upper primary sections in Mityana District, despite policy frameworks and affirmative actions aimed at gender parity. Understanding the interplay of socio-cultural, institutional, and personal barriers specific to the local context of Mityana district is crucial in designing targeted strategies that support female teacher advancement and ensure inclusive educational development.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study was to investigate factors contributing to low representation of female teachers in upper primary section in Mityana District schools.

1.4 Objectives of the study

To examine the socio-cultural factors that influences the representation of female teachers in the upper primary section.
To assess institutional and policy-related barriers affecting the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools.

To explore the personal and professional challenges that discourages female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions.

1.5 Research questions

What are the socio-cultural factors that influence the representation of female teachers in the upper primary section?
What are the institutional and policy-related barriers affecting the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools?

What are the personal and professional challenges that discourage female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions?

1.6 Significance of study

The study is significant because it helps to uncover the root causes behind the gender imbalance in upper primary teaching positions. Despite the progress in gender parity in many education systems globally and in Uganda, female teachers remain underrepresented in upper primary sections.

Understanding the factors contributing to this disparity whether they are personal, socio-cultural, institutional, or policy-related will provide stakeholders with evidence-based insights that can inform more inclusive recruitment and retention strategies. This research is therefore critical in promoting gender equity within the teaching profession and addressing systemic barriers that hinder women’s full participation.

Secondly, the findings from this study are essential for policymakers and education planners, especially within the Ministry of Education and Sports, as they design policies aimed at improving teacher distribution and gender responsiveness in the education sector.

Identifying institutional gaps such as lack of promotion opportunities, gender-insensitive school environments, or absence of supportive infrastructure for female teachers can guide reforms and targeted interventions. These insights will contribute to the development of gender-sensitive frameworks that promote equal access to professional growth and participation for all teachers, regardless of gender.

Furthermore, the study will be useful for teacher training institutions and education NGOs working to empower female educators. By highlighting the challenges and perceptions that discourage women from teaching in upper primary, the research can support the design of capacity-building programs that address specific fears or limitations faced by aspiring female teachers.

These may include mentorship programs, leadership training, and advocacy for improved working conditions particularly in rural or hard-to-reach schools where female presence is even more limited.

Finally, this study contributes to academic literature by providing updated, localized data on gender disparities in education staffing. While many global studies focus on female low representation in leadership roles, less attention is given to the lower levels of representation in specific teaching categories such as upper primary.

By focusing on this often-overlooked issue within the Ugandan context, the study fills a knowledge gap and sets a foundation for further research on gender dynamics in teacher deployment and professional sustainability. It can also serve as a comparative reference for similar studies in Sub-Saharan Africa and other developing regions.

1.7 Delimitations of the study

This study is delimited to examining the factors influencing the low representation of female teachers specifically in the upper primary section, rather than in lower primary, secondary, or tertiary education levels. Although gender disparities exist across all levels of education, the focus of this research is limited to Primary Five to Primary Seven within the Ugandan context, where the drop in female teacher numbers is most evident. This allows for a more detailed exploration of the unique challenges associated with upper primary teaching, such as content complexity and classroom management of older pupils, which are often perceived as barriers by female educators.

Secondly, the study is geographically delimited to selected schools within mityana district, with emphasis on both rural and urban public primary schools. It does not include private or international schools, which may have different teacher recruitment and retention dynamics. The reason for this boundary is to maintain a manageable scope and ensure contextual relevance to national education policies and public service structures, which are typically uniform across government-aided schools in Uganda.

Thirdly, the research focuses primarily on teachers, head teachers, and educational administrators as the main sources of data, and does not extend to learners, parents, or community leaders, despite their potential influence on female teacher representation. This delimitation is intentional to concentrate on the professional experiences, institutional challenges, and policy implications from an insider perspective, which are directly linked to recruitment, promotion, and workplace retention decisions within the school system.

Lastly, the study is delimited to three core thematic areas: socio-cultural factors, institutional and policy-related barriers, and personal and professional challenges, as outlined in the research objectives. Broader systemic issues such as national economic conditions, historical trends in gender and education, or global feminist movements are beyond the scope of this study, although they may provide useful context. This thematic focus ensures the study remains aligned with its specific aim of informing practical interventions to address the underrepresentation of female teachers in upper primary education in Uganda.

1.8 Definition of key terms

Upper primary refers to the later phase of primary education, typically covering the final years before a student transition to secondary school. In many educational systems, including Uganda’s, upper primary comprises Primary Five (P.5) to Primary Seven (P.7), usually catering to children aged between 10 and 13 years. This stage builds upon the foundational skills acquired in the lower primary levels, focusing more on advanced literacy, numeracy, science, social studies, and critical thinking. Upper primary is a crucial period in a child’s academic journey, as it not only consolidates basic education but also prepares learners for the Primary Leaving Examinations (PLE), which determine entry into secondary education.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction of the study

This chapter presents the literature that has been reviewed in line with this study. The purpose of literature review is to establish the existing theoretical background of the study so that the investigation will not be carried out in void. Its presented according to the objectives of the study include; to examine the socio-cultural factors that influences the representation of female teachers in the upper primary section, to assess institutional and policy-related barriers affecting the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools and to explore the personal and professional challenges that discourages female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions.

2.1 The socio-cultural factors that influences the representation of female teachers

Globally, societal norms and expectations regarding women’s roles have historically placed them in domestic and caregiving responsibilities, which in turn limit their access to education and professional development, despite women comprising more than 60% of the teaching workforce in many countries, they remain underrepresented in upper primary, secondary, and leadership positions. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, women make up only 23% of secondary school teachers and an even smaller proportion in school leadership roles (Zickafoose et al., 2024).

In many African societies, cultural norms dictate that women prioritize family responsibilities over professional ambitions, which directly impact their career advancement, Kenya and similar contexts, women often face resistance when aspiring for positions perceived to be male-dominated, such as upper primary or administrative teaching roles. These cultural attitudes discourage women from applying for promotions or further training, thereby limiting their representation (David, Leibbrandt, Ranchhod, & Yasser, 2025).

Religious beliefs also play a critical role. In some conservative communities, religious interpretations restrict women’s roles to the private sphere, making teaching at higher levels, particularly in mixed-gender settings, culturally inappropriate, in some Islamic contexts, families and communities oppose women teaching adolescent boys, which significantly reduces the pool of female teachers available for upper primary and secondary levels (David, Leibbrandt, Ranchhod, & Yasser, 2025).

Societal perceptions of leadership and authority being masculine traits also discourage women from pursuing or being considered for senior roles in education, in many parts of the world, including Latin America and Africa, leadership in schools is often equated with male characteristics, such as assertiveness and authority, creating bias against women educators (Bennell, 2023).

Early marriage and motherhood also pose significant socio-cultural constraints. In Uganda, research by Muwonge et al. (2019) found that many women drop out of teacher training colleges due to pregnancy or early marriage, limiting the number of qualified female teachers. This issue is further compounded by lack of maternity support and child care facilities, which discourage mothers from returning to or continuing in the profession.

Additionally, gender stereotyping in education itself can discourage young girls from aspiring to become teachers, curricula and teacher attitudes in some contexts reinforce gender norms that portray teaching, especially at higher levels, as a male profession. As a result, fewer girls are motivated to pursue teaching careers beyond the primary level, socio-cultural factors such as traditional gender roles, religious beliefs, societal expectations, and gender stereotypes continue to hinder the equitable representation of female teachers, especially in higher-level teaching and leadership positions. Addressing these barriers requires comprehensive strategies including gender-sensitive policies, community sensitization, and targeted support for women educators (Adams, & Baddianaah, 2023).

2.2 Institutional and policy-related barriers affecting the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools

Institutional and policy-related barriers significantly hinder the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools, particularly in developing countries. Despite efforts toward gender equality in education, systemic challenges embedded in institutional practices and weak policy implementation continues to disadvantage women (Adeniran et al., 2023). One key institutional barrier is the lack of gender-sensitive recruitment and promotion procedures, while women make up over 60% of the global teaching workforce at the primary level, they are underrepresented in upper primary and leadership roles due to biased recruitment and promotion systems that often favor men. For instance, in Uganda, female teachers constitute 67% of lower primary teaching staff, yet only 30% serve in upper primary sections and even fewer in Headteacher roles (Asmamaw, & Semela, 2023).

Promotion criteria within educational institutions often lack transparency and are not aligned with the unique needs of female educators, women are frequently evaluated against standards that overlook their dual responsibilities at work and home. Policies that fail to accommodate maternity leave, flexible working hours, or breastfeeding provisions act as deterrents to career progression (Wang, Nwabuoku, Zhang, & Osabohien, 2023). Moreover, promotion panels are often dominated by male administrators, resulting in implicit bias against women candidates (Kattan et al., 2023).

The absence of effective gender mainstreaming in educational policies further exacerbates the issue. Although many countries, including Uganda, have ratified international frameworks such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the practical implementation of these policies at institutional levels remains weak, only a few education systems in Sub-Saharan Africa have comprehensive policies promoting gender equality in teacher management, particularly in rural postings where female teachers are least represented (Oduro, Parker, & Mensah, 2024).

Workplace harassment and lack of institutional support also contribute to poor retention of female teachers. UNESCO (2018) reports that in many countries, female teachers face sexual harassment, intimidation, and lack of mentorship, especially in male-dominated environments such as upper primary schools. These experiences often lead to burnout, low morale, or early resignation. Additionally, limited access to professional development opportunities reduces their competitiveness for promotions. In a study conducted in Kenya, Onyango and Wamahiu (2012) found that only 28% of women teachers had participated in leadership training programs compared to 64% of their male counterparts.

Furthermore, posting policies that assign female teachers to remote or insecure areas without adequate housing or family support structures discourage many from remaining in the profession or accepting promotions, female teachers in rural areas of Uganda face greater challenges due to poor infrastructure, lack of transportation, and family separation, which adversely affects retention, institutional and policy-related barriers such as gender-biased recruitment and promotion practices, weak enforcement of gender policies, inadequate support structures, and lack of professional development opportunities significantly constrain the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools (Ombuya et al., 2012).

2.3 The personal and professional challenges that discourages female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions.

There is a complex interplay of personal and professional challenges that hinder the recruitment and retention of female teachers in upper primary teaching positions. Personal responsibilities such as childbearing, household duties, and caregiving obligations continue to disproportionately affect women, making it difficult for them to commit fully to demanding teaching roles.

Mwiria (2018), many female teachers struggle to balance teaching responsibilities with domestic roles, particularly in patriarchal societies where women are expected to prioritize family over career. This dual burden has been linked to high attrition rates among female teachers, especially those posted to rural or distant schools.

Professional challenges are equally significant, Njeri and Kimathi (2020) in Kenya found that female teachers face limited opportunities for promotion, lack of mentorship, and gender bias in school leadership appointments, which demotivates many from pursuing or staying in upper primary roles. Moreover, school postings often place female teachers in environments lacking adequate facilities, safety, and housing, especially in remote areas an issue emphasized by Muhwezi et al. (2021), who noted that nearly 40% of female teachers in rural Uganda left their positions due to insecurity and poor accommodation conditions. This issue is compounded by school policies that lack gender sensitivity, offering little support for maternity leave, child care, or flexible working arrangements (Tuyizere et al., 2022).

Furthermore, the absence of female role models and professional networks in upper primary teaching also discourages entry and continuity. According to a report by the Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE, 2020), female teachers expressed feeling isolated and undervalued in upper primary positions compared to their male counterparts. In Uganda, a Ministry of Education and Sports report (2023) indicated that only 38% of upper primary teaching staff were women, attributing this to harsh working conditions and limited career progression opportunities for female teachers.

Additionally, cultural and societal expectations play a role. In many African contexts, teaching older children is viewed as a role more suited for male teachers due to discipline and authority stereotypes. A study by Kaggwa and Akankwasa (2024) in Uganda revealed that 62% of school administrators still held biases favoring male teachers for upper primary roles, believing they are better at managing senior pupils. Such attitudes contribute to a hostile work climate that demoralizes female teachers and hinders their professional growth.

2.4 Summary

Societal norms and cultural expectations continue to limit women’s participation in upper primary teaching roles. Globally, although women dominate the teaching workforce numerically, they are underrepresented in higher teaching levels and leadership. In Sub-Saharan Africa, only 23% of secondary school teachers are women. Cultural beliefs prioritize women’s domestic responsibilities, discourage career advancement, and reinforce male dominance in upper-level teaching. Religious doctrines in conservative communities, such as Islamic regions, often bar women from teaching older boys. Societal perceptions that leadership is a masculine trait further limit female teachers’ promotion. Early marriage, motherhood, and lack of maternity and childcare support also hinder women’s continuity in the profession. Gender stereotypes in curriculum and school environments discourage young girls from pursuing upper-level teaching careers.

Institutions often lack gender-sensitive recruitment and promotion frameworks, disadvantaging women. Although women are the majority in lower primary teaching roles, few hold upper primary or leadership positions. Promotion processes often overlook women’s dual roles at home and work, and male-dominated panels may show bias. Many policies supporting gender equality are poorly implemented. Harassment, lack of mentorship, and limited access to leadership training worsen retention. Remote postings without adequate infrastructure or family support deter many female teachers. Weak enforcement of supportive policies, such as maternity leave or professional development, reduces women’s chances of advancement.

Female teachers face a dual burden of domestic responsibilities and professional demands, leading to high attrition especially in rural or remote postings. Limited promotion opportunities, lack of mentorship, and gender-biased leadership practices demotivate women. Poor working and living conditions in schools, such as insecurity and inadequate housing, discourage retention. Absence of female role models and professional networks contributes to feelings of isolation. Societal biases continue to perceive male teachers as more capable of handling senior pupils, creating a hostile and demoralizing work environment for female teachers.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the research methodology that will guide the study. It includes the research design, sample size, sampling procedures, research instruments, procedure for data collection, data analysis and ethical consideration.

3.1 Research design

The study used a case study research design. A case study research design is a qualitative research method that focuses on in-depth exploration and analysis of a specific individual, group, event or phenomenon. It involves conducting a detailed investigation of a particular case to gain insights, understand complex issues and generate rich, context-specific data (Rashid et al., 2019).

3.2 Study area

The study was conducted in Mityana district

3.3 Study Population

A population refers to any collection of specified groups of human beings or of non-human entities such as objects, educational institutions, time units, geographical areas, and prices of wheat or salaries drawn by individuals (Suphanchaimat, 2021). The study population for this study will include teachers in upper primary school and head teachers, the population will include 15 teachers from upper primary school and three head teachers, the respondents will be from the school of, Buyagga, Bulera Islamic P/S, Mwererwe Primary Schools, all from Bulera Sub- County Mityana District.

3.4 Sampling procedures / strategies

The research aims at in-depth exploration of participants’ experiences therefore the research will take up the 18 respondents who will be 15 teachers and 3 head teachers this is because the population is small and the researcher can cover all of them. In this study, the researcher will use purposive sampling technique to choose respondents, this will be used for Head teachers, since they are few, Purposive sampling is a form of non-probability sampling in which a researcher relies on his or her own judgment when choosing members of the population to participate in the study (Ames, Glenton, & Lewin, 2019). White (2005) explains that in purposive sampling, the concern is to acquire in depth knowledge from those who are in position to give it, this sampling technique will be used to access a particular group of people whose profile fits the context of this study. Simple Random Sampling Technique (SRS)It is a probability sampling method where every individual or element in the population has an equal chance of being selected. This Technique will be used for selecting teachers.

3.5 Methods and Instruments of Data collection

These are data collection methods and tools. These included; interview guide, document review and focus group discussion guide.

3.5.1 Interview guide

Interviews refer to a structured or semi-structured conversation between two or more individuals, typically conducted for the purpose of gathering information, exchanging ideas, or eliciting responses to specific questions (Odiya, 2009). Interviews are commonly used in research, journalism, recruitment, and various professional settings to collect qualitative or quantitative data, gain insights, and explore people’s perspectives and experiences (Yin, 2009). In an interview, one person takes on the role of the interviewer, who poses questions and guides the conversation, while the other person or people being interviewed are the respondents or interviewees, who provide answers and share their thoughts, knowledge, or opinions. The interviewer may use a predetermined set of questions or engage in a more flexible, open-ended conversation, depending on the purpose and nature of the interview (Yin, 2009). The study used interview guide to get response from teachers and Head teachers on the interview questions that were asked regarding the topic under investigation.

3.5.2 Documentary Review

Documentary review is a research method that involves the systematic and critical analysis of existing documents, such as reports, policy papers, and archives, to collect data and insights related to a specific research question (Karppinen, & Moe, 2019). It is a useful technique for researchers who want to investigate a particular topic or issue in-depth, but who do not have access to primary data sources, such as surveys or interviews (Karppinen, & Moe, 2019).

The process of documentary review typically involves a thorough examination of the available documents, with a focus on identifying relevant information and data. The researcher will use various methods to analyze the documents, such as content analysis or discourse analysis, to identify patterns, themes, and key issues related to the research question (Dalglish, Khalid, & McMahon, 2020).

Overall, documentary review is a valuable research method that involves the critical analysis of existing documents to gather data and insights related to a specific research question. It can be used on its own or in conjunction with other research methods, and can help to provide a more comprehensive understanding of complex issues and topics (Tight, 2019).

3.5.3 Focus group discussion

Krueger and Casey (2015), “a focus group is a carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, non-threatening environment.” The group interaction helps participants build on each other’s ideas, thereby revealing a broader range of perspectives than individual interviews might capture, the study used focus group discussion on teachers to get their knowledge on the subject under the study. In this instrument the researcher was organized a group of 5 teachers to discuss the question that the researcher rose as he was writing them down.

3.6 Procedure of data collection

After formulation of data collection instruments, the researcher took the tools to the supervisor for approval. The researcher sought for an introductory letter from the office of the institution; this introductory letter was presented to the respondents of the school to obtain permission to conduct the study. Thereafter, the instrument which involved the interview guides was carried by the researcher as he interviews the respondents as stipulated in the research proposal.

3.7 Data Analysis and processing

Data analysis followed a thematic approach, which is most suitable for qualitative research using interviews and focus group discussions. After data collection, all interviews and focus group discussions was audio-recorded (with consent) and transcribed verbatim to ensure accuracy. The researcher then read through the transcripts several times to become familiar with the data and gain a holistic understanding of participants’ views.

The next step involved coding, where meaningful statements and recurring ideas will be systematically highlighted and assigned labels. Codes with similar patterns will be grouped together into categories, and from these categories, broader themes were developed to reflect the major factors influencing the low representation of female teachers in the upper primary section. This process was supported by constant comparison, where data from different schools and respondent groups are compared to identify similarities, variations, and unique perspectives.

To enhance rigor, the researcher used manual coding supported by memo writing, ensuring transparency in how themes are generated. Triangulation of data from interviews and focus group discussions also carried out to cross-validate findings. Finally, the results was interpreted by linking the emergent themes to the study objectives and relevant literature, providing a comprehensive understanding of the socio-cultural, institutional, and structural factors shaping the representation of female teachers in the selected schools.

3.8 Data Presentation

Quantitative data from questionnaires or surveys was first coded, entered into statistical software such as SPSS or Excel, and analyzed to produce descriptive statistics like frequencies, percentages, and mean scores, which then be displayed using tables, charts, and graphs for easy interpretation. Qualitative data from interviews, focus group discussions, and open-ended responses will be transcribed, read thoroughly, and subjected to thematic analysis, grouping responses into key themes and sub-themes that reflect common patterns or unique insights. These themes will be transcribed narratively, supported by direct quotations from participants to add depth and authenticity. The final presentation was integrated both data types, using quantitative results to highlight trends and qualitative findings to provide context and explanation, ensuring that the discussion remains linked to the study objectives and grounded in the realities of the selected schools. This combined approach enhances the credibility, richness, and clarity of the findings.

3.9 Ethical Considerations

This study adhered to established ethical standards for qualitative research to ensure the rights, safety, and dignity of all participants is protected. Prior to commencing fieldwork, the research proposal was submitted to the institution and Ethics Committee for review and formal approval. Data collection was only begun after ethical clearance has been granted, in line with institutional and national research guidelines.

Informed consent was sought from all participants before interviews and focus group discussions, with clear explanations of the study objectives, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. Participation will be voluntary, and respondents had the right to withdraw at any stage without any consequences.

Data was handled with strict confidentiality measures. All transcripts, audio recordings, and field notes was securely stored in password-protected digital files and locked cabinets accessible only to the researcher. Identifiable information such as names of participants were removed from transcripts and replaced with codes to safeguard their identities. While confidentiality ensures that participants’ data are protected and not disclosed to unauthorized persons, anonymity goes further by ensuring that individual identities are not linked to their responses in the final report. Since complete anonymity may not be possible in interviews and focus group discussions, confidentiality will be prioritized, and all quotations in the report was presented without personal identifiers. To protect participants further, data was only be retained for a limited period up to five years after the completion of the study to allow for verification if required. Thereafter, all digital data will be permanently deleted, and hard copies were shredded. These measures ensured that the research is conducted with respect, integrity, and responsibility.

3.10 Limitations of the study

The study relies on qualitative data collected through interviews and focus group discussions, which are subject to participants’ personal perceptions, biases, and willingness to disclose information. Some respondents may withhold sensitive information or provide socially desirable answers, which could affect the authenticity of the data.

logistical and time constraints may limit the depth of engagement with participants, especially given the need to schedule interviews around school activities and participants’ availability. This may reduce opportunities for prolonged observation or follow-up discussions that could provide additional insights, the researcher’s own positionality and potential biases may influence data interpretation, while measures such as reflexivity, triangulation, and member checking are employed to minimize this, complete elimination of subjective influence is challenging in qualitative research. Despite these limitations, the study provides valuable insights into the socio-cultural, structural, and institutional factors contributing to the low representation of female teachers in upper primary sections in the selected schools. The findings can inform targeted interventions and policy recommendations within the local context.

Chapter four

Presentation of study findings

4.0 introduction of the study

This section presents the study findings inline with study objectibes.

4.1 Objective i: To examine the socio-cultural factors that influence the representation of female teachers in the upper primary section

In exploring societal perceptions, respondents highlighted that male teachers are often viewed as more authoritative and better suited to handle upper primary classes, especially due to discipline issues. One head teacher explained that “parents and even school management sometimes trust male teachers more with upper classes because they think they are firmer.” In contrast, female teachers are often perceived as less strict, which may limit their opportunities in upper primary sections.

Regarding traditional expectations, several respondents pointed out that women are expected to prioritize family responsibilities over career advancement. One female teacher stated that “many women hesitate to take upper primary classes because they require more time for lesson preparation and marking, which conflicts with family duties.” Another added that “marriage and childcare responsibilities discourage some women from pursuing or remaining in upper primary teaching.”

During the interviews, the researcher further probed socio-cultural influences shaping the representation of female teachers in upper primary, and a number of deeper insights emerged. When asked about cultural beliefs and gender roles, several respondents emphasized that community norms strongly associate women with nurturing roles, which limits their placement in upper primary. One teacher explained that “in most cases, women are expected to handle lower classes because they are seen as motherly and more patient with young children, while upper primary is viewed as needing firmness and strictness, which is associated with men.” Another respondent added that “even when a woman is capable, the assumption is already there that she may not manage older pupils effectively.”

In relation to societal perceptions, respondents highlighted that authority in the classroom is often gendered. A head teacher noted that “male teachers are often respected more by learners and parents when it comes to upper primary, especially because of discipline issues. This perception affects how roles are assigned in schools.” Similarly, one female teacher shared that “sometimes students themselves respond differently; they tend to fear male teachers more, which makes it easier for men to be assigned upper classes.” This suggests that societal attitudes not only influence administrative decisions but also classroom dynamics.

Further discussions revealed that cultural expectations around women’s roles in the family significantly affect their professional choices. One interviewee stated that “women are expected to be available for family responsibilities like childcare and household duties, so taking up upper primary classes, which require more time and commitment, becomes difficult.” Another teacher added that “some husbands or families may not support women taking on demanding roles, especially those that extend beyond school hours.”

Religious and traditional beliefs were also mentioned as contributing factors. In some communities, it was noted that women are expected to be modest and less assertive, which may conflict with the perceived demands of managing upper primary learners. A respondent remarked that “upper primary teaching requires confidence and sometimes strict discipline, but some cultural beliefs discourage women from being too authoritative.”

Additionally, gender stereotypes were found to influence career progression. One teacher observed that “from the beginning, female teachers are often directed towards lower classes, so they gain less experience in upper primary, which later affects their chances of being considered for those positions.” This creates a cycle where women remain underrepresented due to limited exposure and opportunity.

The issue of role models also emerged in the discussions. Some respondents pointed out that the lack of female teachers in upper primary reduces inspiration for others. One participant stated that “when younger female teachers do not see women in upper primary, they also feel it is not their place.”

The interviews reinforce that socio-cultural factors including gender norms, societal perceptions of authority, family expectations, religious influences, and entrenched stereotypes play a significant role in shaping the representation of female teachers in upper primary sections. These factors not only affect opportunities but also influence confidence, motivation, and long-term career trajectories of female teachers, the interviews reveal that deeply rooted cultural norms, gender stereotypes, and societal expectations significantly influence the underrepresentation of female teachers in upper primary sections.

4.2 Objective ii: To assess institutional and policy-related barriers affecting the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools

On promotion practices, participants emphasized that school leadership and administrative decisions play a critical role. A head teacher remarked that “promotion to upper primary or leadership roles often depends on the head teacher’s perception, and sometimes male teachers are favored due to beliefs about competence and authority.”

Institutional structures were also found to influence retention. Some respondents highlighted that lack of supportive policies, such as flexible working arrangements, makes it difficult for female teachers to remain in upper primary roles. One teacher explained that “there are no clear policies to support women with family responsibilities, so many prefer to remain in lower classes where the workload is lighter.”

Additionally, limited access to professional development opportunities was cited as a barrier. Some teachers reported that training programs are not always equally accessible, which affects women’s preparedness and confidence to take on upper primary roles.

Further interviews with teachers and head teachers revealed deeper insights into the institutional and policy-related barriers influencing the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary sections. When discussing recruitment practices, several respondents indicated that although official policies promote equal opportunity, informal biases often shape final decisions. One head teacher noted that “even when women apply, school administrators may still lean towards male candidates for upper primary because they are perceived to be better at handling discipline and examination classes.” Another teacher added that “there are no written rules excluding women, but the mindset during selection sometimes favors men.”

In relation to promotion, respondents highlighted a lack of clear and transparent criteria for assigning teachers to upper primary or leadership roles. One participant explained that “promotion is sometimes based on personal judgment rather than structured guidelines, and this can disadvantage female teachers.” A female teacher further remarked that “even when women perform well, they are not always considered for upper primary or senior roles because of assumptions about their availability and commitment.”

Regarding retention, respondents emphasized the absence of supportive workplace policies tailored to the needs of female teachers. For instance, one teacher noted that “there are no flexible arrangements for women with young children, so many prefer to stay in lower classes where the workload is manageable.” Another added that “schools rarely consider personal circumstances when assigning upper primary roles, which discourages some women from taking or staying in those positions.”

The issue of workload distribution was also raised as an institutional concern. Participants indicated that upper primary teachers often handle examination classes, which come with additional pressure and responsibilities. A respondent explained that “upper primary teachers are expected to produce good results, and this pressure is sometimes not balanced with adequate support, making it less attractive for female teachers.”

Access to professional development opportunities was another critical factor discussed. Some teachers reported that training and workshops relevant to upper primary teaching are not always equitably distributed. One participant stated that “sometimes male teachers are prioritized for training in upper primary subjects, which gives them an advantage in promotion and retention.” This unequal access limits the preparedness and confidence of female teachers to take on upper primary roles.

Additionally, respondents pointed out that policy implementation gaps exist, even where gender-inclusive policies are in place. A head teacher remarked that “policies may exist at higher levels, but at the school level, they are not always enforced or monitored, so inequalities persist.”

In conclusion, the extended interviews reveal that institutional and policy-related barriers such as implicit bias in recruitment, lack of transparent promotion criteria, unsupportive leadership practices, heavy workload demands, limited access to professional development, and weak policy implementation significantly affect the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools. Addressing these challenges requires not only the formulation of inclusive policies but also their effective implementation and monitoring at the school level, the findings indicate that institutional practices, leadership decisions, and policy gaps contribute significantly to the limited representation of female teachers in upper primary sections.

4.3 Objective iii: To explore the personal and professional challenges that discourage female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions

Finally, the interviews examined the personal and professional challenges faced by female teachers. Respondents identified workload as a major issue, with upper primary teaching involving extensive lesson preparation, marking, and examination responsibilities. One teacher stated that “upper primary has a heavy workload, and it becomes difficult to balance with personal and family obligations.”

Classroom management was also highlighted as a challenge. Some female teachers expressed concerns about handling older pupils, particularly in large classes. A respondent noted that “managing discipline in upper primary can be stressful, especially when classes are large and resources are limited.”

In terms of professional factors, limited training and support in handling upper primary content and learners were mentioned. Some teachers felt that they lacked adequate preparation to confidently teach upper classes, which discouraged them from taking up such roles.

Personal factors such as family responsibilities, maternity, and work-life balance further influenced decisions to leave upper primary positions. One respondent explained that “many women move to lower classes because they are less demanding and allow more time for family.”

Additionally, some teachers pointed out that stress and lack of recognition in upper primary roles contribute to low motivation. This leads some female teachers to seek alternative roles or remain in lower sections where the pressure is perceived to be lower.

The interviews further revealed a range of personal and professional challenges that significantly influence female teachers’ decisions regarding upper primary teaching. When discussing personal challenges, many respondents highlighted the difficulty of balancing professional responsibilities with family obligations. One female teacher explained that “upper primary requires extra time for lesson preparation, marking, and remedial teaching, yet as a mother, I am also expected to take care of my family after school.” Another added that “it becomes overwhelming to manage both roles effectively, so some of us prefer lower classes which are less demanding.” This indicates that competing domestic responsibilities play a major role in limiting women’s participation in upper primary.

Additionally, confidence and self-perception emerged as important personal factors. Some respondents noted that female teachers may doubt their ability to handle older learners, especially in subjects perceived as difficult. One participant stated that “some women feel they are not strong enough to control upper primary classes, especially where learners are more challenging.” This perception, often shaped by societal expectations, can reduce willingness to take up such roles.

From a professional perspective, workload was consistently identified as a major discouraging factor. Respondents emphasized that upper primary teaching involves heavy responsibilities, particularly in examination classes. One teacher noted that “there is a lot of pressure to produce good results in national exams, and this comes with extra teaching hours, revision sessions, and close monitoring of learners.” Another added that “this pressure can be stressful, and without adequate support, it discourages many female teachers.”

Classroom management challenges were also frequently mentioned. Participants explained that upper primary learners can be more difficult to manage due to their age and behavior. A respondent shared that “handling discipline in upper primary is not easy, and some female teachers feel they are not given enough support when dealing with difficult learners.” This lack of support contributes to reluctance in taking on such roles.

Limited access to relevant training and professional development opportunities further compounds these challenges. Some respondents indicated that they had not received sufficient training in upper primary subject content or teaching strategies. One teacher remarked that “without proper training, it becomes hard to teach confidently, especially in subjects like mathematics and science.” This gap in skills development reduces both competence and motivation.

Another issue raised was the lack of mentorship and peer support. Female teachers reported that there are few role models or mentors to guide them in upper primary teaching. One participant stated that “if there were more experienced female teachers in upper primary, it would encourage others, but currently the support system is limited.”

Work environment and motivation were also highlighted as influencing factors. Some respondents pointed out that limited incentives, recognition, and career progression opportunities reduce their willingness to remain in upper primary. A teacher explained that “the effort required in upper primary is high, but the rewards are not different from other classes, which makes it less motivating.”

Finally, emotional and physical strain was noted as a challenge. Respondents described upper primary teaching as demanding and sometimes exhausting. One interviewee shared that “the combination of large classes, high expectations, and long hours can lead to burnout, especially for female teachers who already have multiple responsibilities.”

The interviews demonstrate that female teachers face a complex interplay of personal and professional challenges including work-life balance constraints, self-confidence issues, heavy workloads, classroom management difficulties, limited training opportunities, lack of mentorship, low motivation, and emotional strain. These factors collectively discourage many from taking up or remaining in upper primary. The interviews further reveal that a combination of heavy workload, classroom challenges, limited professional support, and personal responsibilities significantly discourages female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Discussion

This section presents discussion, conclusion and recommendations

5.1 Discussion

The discussions were presented in line with study objectives;

5.1.1 To examine the socio-cultural factors that influence the representation of female teachers in the upper primary section

During the interviews, the researcher sought to understand how socio-cultural beliefs and gender roles shape the participation of female teachers in upper primary teaching. When asked how cultural beliefs and gender roles affect women’s chances of teaching in upper primary, one teacher noted that “in our community, women are often seen as more suitable for lower classes because they are believed to be more caring and patient with younger children.” Another respondent added that “upper primary is considered more demanding, and culturally, men are seen as stronger and better able to control older pupils. This view was also in line with Zickafoose et al., (2024) who asserts that societal norms and expectations regarding women’s roles have historically placed them in domestic and caregiving responsibilities, which in turn limit their access to education and professional development, despite women comprising more than 60% of the teaching workforce in many countries, they remain underrepresented in upper primary, secondary, and leadership positions. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, women make up only 23% of secondary school teachers and an even smaller proportion in school leadership roles.

In exploring societal perceptions, respondents highlighted that male teachers are often viewed as more authoritative and better suited to handle upper primary classes, especially due to discipline issues, this view was also in line with Leibbrandt et al., (2025) who asserts that cultural norms dictate that women prioritize family responsibilities over professional ambitions, which directly impact their career advancement, Kenya and similar contexts, women often face resistance when aspiring for positions perceived to be male-dominated, such as upper primary or administrative teaching roles.

Regarding traditional expectations, several respondents pointed out that women are expected to prioritize family responsibilities over career advancement, this view was also shared by Yasser, (2025) who stated that religious beliefs also play a critical role. In some conservative communities, religious interpretations restrict women’s roles to the private sphere, making teaching at higher levels, particularly in mixed-gender settings, culturally inappropriate, in some Islamic contexts, families and communities oppose women teaching adolescent boys, which significantly reduces the pool of female teachers available for upper primary and secondary levels.

During the interviews, the researcher further probed socio-cultural influences shaping the representation of female teachers in upper primary, and a number of deeper insights emerged. When asked about cultural beliefs and gender roles, several respondents emphasized that community norms strongly associate women with nurturing roles, which limits their placement in upper primary, this was also in line with Muwonge et al. (2019) found that many women drop out of teacher training colleges due to pregnancy or early marriage, limiting the number of qualified female teachers. This issue is further compounded by lack of maternity support and child care facilities, which discourage mothers from returning to or continuing in the profession.

In relation to societal perceptions, respondents highlighted that authority in the classroom is often gendered. A head teacher noted that “male teachers are often respected more by learners and parents when it comes to upper primary, especially because of discipline issues. This perception affects how roles are assigned in schools.” Similarly, one female teacher shared that “sometimes students themselves respond differently; they tend to fear male teachers more, which makes it easier for men to be assigned upper classes.” This suggests that societal attitudes not only influence administrative decisions but also classroom dynamics, this view was also inline with Adams, & Baddianaah, (2023) who asserts that fewer girls are motivated to pursue teaching careers beyond the primary level, socio-cultural factors such as traditional gender roles, religious beliefs, societal expectations, and gender stereotypes continue to hinder the equitable representation of female teachers, especially in higher-level teaching and leadership positions.

5.1.2 The institutional and policy-related barriers affecting the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools

The researcher further explored institutional and policy-related challenges affecting female teachers. When asked about recruitment challenges, respondents indicated that although recruitment policies may appear gender-neutral, implicit biases still exist. this was also further in line with Adeniran et al., (2023) Efforts toward gender equality in education, systemic challenges embedded in institutional practices and weak policy implementation continues to disadvantage women, One key institutional barrier is the lack of gender-sensitive recruitment and promotion procedures, while women make up over 60% of the global teaching workforce at the primary level, they are underrepresented in upper primary and leadership roles due to biased recruitment and promotion systems that often favor men.

On promotion practices, participants emphasized that school leadership and administrative decisions play a critical role this was also further highlighted by Wang, Nwabuoku, Zhang, & Osabohien, (2023) Promotion criteria within educational institutions often lack transparency and are not aligned with the unique needs of female educators, women are frequently evaluated against standards that overlook their dual responsibilities at work and home. Policies that fail to accommodate maternity leave, flexible working hours, or breastfeeding provisions act as deterrents to career progression.

Institutional structures were also found to influence retention. Some respondents highlighted that lack of supportive policies, such as flexible working arrangements, makes it difficult for female teachers to remain in upper primary roles, this finding were also in line with Oduro, Parker, & Mensah, (2024) who asserts that the absence of effective gender mainstreaming in educational policies further exacerbates the issue. Although many countries, including Uganda, have ratified international frameworks such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the practical implementation of these policies at institutional levels remains weak, only a few education systems in Sub-Saharan Africa have comprehensive policies promoting gender equality in teacher management, particularly in rural postings where female teachers are least represented.

Interviews with teachers and head teachers revealed deeper insights into the institutional and policy-related barriers influencing the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary sections. When discussing recruitment practices, several respondents indicated that although official policies promote equal opportunity, informal biases often shape final decisions. One head teacher noted that “even when women apply, school administrators may still lean towards male candidates for upper primary because they are perceived to be better at handling discipline and examination classes.” Another teacher added that “there are no written rules excluding women, but the mindset during selection sometimes favors men.” This finding was also in line with Wamahiu (2012) who asserts that workplace harassment and lack of institutional support also contribute to poor retention of female teachers. UNESCO (2018) reports that in many countries, female teachers face sexual harassment, intimidation, and lack of mentorship, especially in male-dominated environments such as upper primary schools. These experiences often lead to burnout, low morale, or early resignation.

Institutional leadership and school management practices were also identified as key influencing factors. Some respondents pointed out that the attitudes of head teachers significantly determine whether female teachers are given opportunities in upper primary. One interviewee stated that “if the head teacher believes in gender equality, more women are given opportunities, but where such support is lacking, women remain in lower classes.” This suggests that leadership style and administrative priorities play a critical role in shaping teacher distribution, this view was also inline with Ombuya et al., (2012).who asserts that posting policies that assign female teachers to remote or insecure areas without adequate housing or family support structures discourage many from remaining in the profession or accepting promotions, female teachers in rural areas of Uganda face greater challenges due to poor infrastructure, lack of transportation, and family separation, which adversely affects retention, institutional and policy-related barriers such as gender-biased recruitment and promotion practices, weak enforcement of gender policies, inadequate support structures, and lack of professional development opportunities significantly constrain the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools.

5.1.3 The personal and professional challenges that discourage female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions

The interviews examined the personal and professional challenges faced by female teachers. Respondents identified workload as a major issue, with upper primary teaching involving extensive lesson preparation, marking, and examination responsibilities. One teacher stated that “upper primary has a heavy workload, and it becomes difficult to balance with personal and family obligations, this view was also in line with Mwiria (2018) who asserts that many female teachers struggle to balance teaching responsibilities with domestic roles, particularly in patriarchal societies where women are expected to prioritize family over career. This dual burden has been linked to high attrition rates among female teachers, especially those posted to rural or distant schools.

The study findings further assert that Classroom management was also highlighted as a challenge. Some female teachers expressed concerns about handling older pupils, particularly in large classes. A respondent noted that “managing discipline in upper primary can be stressful, especially when classes are large and resources are limited, this was also in line with Njeri and Kimathi (2020) who asserts that in Kenya found that female teachers face limited opportunities for promotion, lack of mentorship, and gender bias in school leadership appointments, which demotivates many from pursuing or staying in upper primary roles. Moreover, school postings often place female teachers in environments lacking adequate facilities, safety, and housing, especially in remote areas an issue emphasized.

The interviews further revealed a range of personal and professional challenges that significantly influence female teachers’ decisions regarding upper primary teaching. When discussing personal challenges, many respondents highlighted the difficulty of balancing professional responsibilities with family obligations. One female teacher explained that “upper primary requires extra time for lesson preparation, marking, and remedial teaching, yet as a mother, I am also expected to take care of my family after school.” Another added that “it becomes overwhelming to manage both roles effectively, so some of us prefer lower classes which are less demanding.” This indicates that competing domestic responsibilities play a major role in limiting women’s participation in upper primary this was also inline with Muhwezi et al. (2021), who noted that nearly 40% of female teachers in rural Uganda left their positions due to insecurity and poor accommodation conditions.

confidence and self-perception emerged as important personal factors. Some respondents noted that female teachers may doubt their ability to handle older learners, especially in subjects perceived as difficult. One participant stated that “some women feel they are not strong enough to control upper primary classes, especially where learners are more challenging.” This perception, often shaped by societal expectations, can reduce willingness to take up such roles.

5.2 Conclusion

The study concludes that the representation of female teachers in upper primary sections is significantly shaped by deeply rooted socio-cultural beliefs, gender norms, and societal expectations within the community. The findings reveal that women are predominantly perceived as more suitable for lower primary classes due to their nurturing and caring nature, while upper primary teaching is culturally associated with authority, strictness, and discipline traits often attributed to men. These perceptions are reinforced by parents, learners, and school administrators, thereby influencing staffing decisions and limiting opportunities for female teachers. Furthermore, traditional expectations that prioritize women’s roles in family care, including marriage, childcare, and household responsibilities, constrain their ability to take on the demanding workload associated with upper primary teaching. Cultural and religious beliefs that discourage assertiveness among women, coupled with entrenched gender stereotypes and limited role models, further perpetuate their underrepresentation. Consequently, these socio-cultural factors not only restrict access and participation but also affect female teachers’ confidence, motivation, and career progression, creating a cycle that sustains gender disparities in upper primary education.

The study concludes that institutional and policy-related factors play a significant role in shaping the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools. Despite the existence of formally gender-neutral policies, the findings reveal that implicit biases and subjective decision-making processes continue to disadvantage female teachers, particularly during recruitment and promotion. School leadership and administrative discretion were found to heavily influence teacher placement, often favoring male teachers due to entrenched perceptions of authority, discipline, and competence. Furthermore, the absence of clear and transparent promotion criteria limits equal opportunities for career advancement among female teachers. The study also established that unsupportive institutional structures such as lack of flexible working arrangements, heavy workload demands associated with upper primary classes, and inadequate consideration of personal circumstances discourage female teachers from taking up or remaining in these roles. In addition, unequal access to professional development opportunities and weak implementation of gender-inclusive policies further undermine women’s preparedness, confidence, and retention. Overall, the findings demonstrate that systemic institutional practices, leadership attitudes, and policy implementation gaps collectively contribute to the persistent underrepresentation of female teachers in upper primary sections.

The study concludes that female teachers’ participation in upper primary teaching is significantly constrained by a combination of interrelated personal and professional challenges. The findings reveal that heavy workload demands particularly those associated with examination classes, extensive lesson preparation, and continuous assessment create substantial pressure that is difficult to balance with family and domestic responsibilities. This imbalance is further compounded by personal factors such as maternity obligations, childcare, and broader expectations of women’s roles within the household. Additionally, issues of self-confidence and perceived competence, especially in managing older learners and teaching complex subjects, reduce many female teachers’ willingness to take up or remain in upper primary roles. Professionally, challenges such as limited access to targeted training, inadequate mentorship, insufficient administrative support, and difficulties in classroom management particularly in large or resource-constrained settings further discourage their engagement. The lack of recognition, incentives, and clear career progression opportunities also contributes to low motivation, while the emotional and physical strain associated with upper primary teaching increases the risk of burnout.

5.3 Recommendations of the study

Based on the study findings, several recommendations are proposed to address the socio-cultural, institutional, and personal barriers limiting the representation of female teachers in upper primary sections. First, there is a need for community sensitization programs to challenge and transform deeply rooted gender stereotypes and cultural beliefs that associate women with lower primary roles and men with authority in upper primary. Schools, in collaboration with local leaders and stakeholders, should promote positive attitudes towards female teachers’ capabilities in managing upper primary classes and provide visible role models to inspire confidence among women.

Secondly, education authorities and school management should strengthen the implementation of gender-responsive policies by ensuring fairness and transparency in recruitment, promotion, and teacher deployment processes. Clear and objective criteria should be established to minimize bias, while regular monitoring should be conducted to ensure compliance with gender equity principles. Additionally, school leaders should be trained on gender-sensitive leadership practices to foster inclusive and supportive work environments.

Thirdly, institutions should introduce supportive workplace policies such as flexible working arrangements, consideration of maternity needs, and balanced workload distribution to enable female teachers to effectively manage both professional and family responsibilities. Reducing excessive workload in upper primary, particularly in examination classes, and ensuring equitable allocation of duties can enhance retention.

Furthermore, there is a need to expand access to targeted professional development programs, mentorship, and capacity-building initiatives specifically designed to equip female teachers with the skills and confidence required for upper primary teaching. Establishing mentorship networks and peer support systems can also help address issues of self-confidence and professional isolation.

Finally, schools and policymakers should introduce motivation and retention strategies, including recognition, incentives, and clear career progression pathways for teachers in upper primary. Improving working conditions, providing adequate teaching resources, and offering psychosocial support can reduce stress and burnout. Addressing these factors holistically will contribute to increasing the participation, retention, and advancement of female teachers in upper primary education.

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FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

How do cultural beliefs and gender roles in your community affect women’s chances of teaching in the upper primary section?

In your view, how does society’s perception of male and female teachers differ in relation to teaching upper primary classes?

What traditional or community expectations do you think discourage women from pursuing or staying in upper primary teaching positions?

What challenges do female teachers face during the recruitment process for upper primary teaching positions?

How do school policies and practices influence the promotion of female teachers to higher positions in upper primary?

In what ways do institutional structures affect the retention of female teachers in upper primary sections?

What personal challenges do female teachers experience that make it difficult to take up or remain in upper primary teaching roles?

How do professional issues such as workload, training opportunities, or classroom management affect women’s willingness to teach in upper primary?

What specific factors make some female teachers leave upper primary positions for lower sections or other alternatives?

Interview Guide (Key Informant / Individual Interviews)

Section A: Background Information

How long have you been teaching?

Which class levels do you currently teach?

Section B: Socio-Cultural Factors

(Objective I)

In your opinion, how do community cultural beliefs influence women’s participation in upper primary teaching?
How do gender roles in society affect female teachers’ involvement in upper primary classes?
What are the common perceptions of parents and community members regarding female teachers teaching upper primary learners?
How do domestic responsibilities (e.g., childcare, family roles) affect female teachers’ ability to teach upper primary?
To what extent do traditional attitudes towards women in leadership influence their representation in upper primary sections?
Probes: Can you give examples? How does this affect teacher placement?

Section C: Institutional and Policy-Related Barriers

(Objective II)

What is your view on recruitment practices for upper primary teachers—are they fair to both men and women?
How do promotion opportunities differ between male and female teachers?
Are there policies in place that support female teachers’ career advancement? If yes, how effective are they?
How do school policies address gender equality in teacher deployment?
What institutional challenges affect the retention of female teachers in upper primary?
Probes: Leadership attitudes? Transparency? Work environment?

Section D: Personal and Professional Challenges

(Objective III)

How does workload in upper primary affect female teachers’ willingness to teach at that level?
How do female teachers balance family responsibilities with upper primary teaching demands?
What professional development opportunities exist for female teachers in upper primary?
What challenges do female teachers face in classroom management, especially with older learners?
How does the availability (or lack) of mentorship and role models influence female teachers’ decisions?