FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO LOW REPRESENTATION OF FEMALE TEACHERS IN UPPER PRIMARY SECTION IN BULERA PRIMARY SCHOOLS, BULERA SUBCOUNTY MITYANA DISTRICT

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This chapter includes the introduction, background information, statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, objectives of the study, research questions, scope of the study, significance of the study, operational definition of key terms in the topic, limitations of the study and delimitations.

1.1  Background

Globally, research shows that the underrepresentation of female teachers in upper primary and higher levels of education is influenced by multiple interconnected factors. These include gender stereotypes, cultural perceptions of women’s roles, family responsibilities, and institutional barriers such as recruitment practices and limited career progression opportunities. According to UNESCO (2021), although women make up more than 60% of the global teaching workforce in primary education, their numbers significantly decline in upper primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. The disparity is often more pronounced in rural and conflict-affected areas, where gender norms are more rigid and infrastructural challenges limit female teacher retention.

At the continental level, Sub-Saharan Africa faces more acute gender disparities in education systems. Structural inequalities, early marriage, limited access to higher education, and lack of gender-sensitive policies contribute to the low number of female teachers in upper primary and above. The African Union’s Continental Education Strategy for Africa (CESA 2016–2025) recognizes the need for gender parity but acknowledges the persistent gap, particularly in the deployment and promotion of female teachers in higher primary and administrative positions. Data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics indicate that, in many African countries, male teachers dominate upper primary classes, especially in subjects perceived as “technical” or “challenging.”

Regionally, East African countries such as Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, and Uganda share similar challenges regarding the representation of female teachers in upper primary. Cultural expectations that assign domestic and childcare roles to women, along with the lack of female-friendly school environments such as inadequate maternity provisions, staff accommodation, or security in rural areas discourage women from accepting postings or promotions in upper primary schools. Moreover, the progression from lower to upper primary teaching roles often requires additional training or qualifications, which women may find difficult to pursue due to social or economic constraints.

In Uganda, the issue is particularly concerning. Despite efforts by the Ministry of Education and Sports to promote gender equity in education through policies such as the Gender in Education Policy (2009) and affirmative action in teacher training admissions, the representation of female teachers in upper primary schools remains disproportionately low. National data reveals a sharp decline in the number of female teachers from lower to upper primary levels, with male teachers dominating in Primary Five to Primary Seven. Contributing factors include limited access to in-service training for women, societal norms that discourage women from teaching older children, and the rural-urban divide, where female teachers are less likely to be posted or retained in remote areas. Additionally, female teachers often face challenges balancing professional demands with family responsibilities, which are intensified by inadequate support systems at the school and community levels.

In light of these challenges, this study seeks to explore the multifaceted factors contributing to the low representation of female teachers in the upper primary section, with a specific focus on the Ugandan context. Understanding these factors is crucial for informing gender-responsive policies and interventions aimed at promoting equity and inclusiveness in the education sector.

1.2 Problem statement

The low representation of female teachers in upper primary sections of Bulera Primary Schools, located in Bulera Sub-county, Mityana District, presents a significant educational and gender equity challenge. Despite national efforts to promote female participation in education, including Uganda’s Gender in Education Policy (2009), the transition of women from lower to upper primary teaching positions remains limited. This trend mirrors broader national and regional patterns where women, though forming the majority of the primary teaching workforce, are disproportionately underrepresented in upper primary levels particularly in rural and underserved areas. According to the Uganda National Examinations Board (UNEB, 2022), male teachers constitute more than 70% of the teaching staff in Primary Five to Seven in rural districts, illustrating the persistent gender imbalance.

In Bulera Sub-county specifically, preliminary school-level data and stakeholder interviews reveal that entrenched socio-cultural norms, such as the belief that teaching older pupils—especially boys is more suitable for male teachers, discourage female participation in upper classes. Furthermore, structural and institutional barriers—such as lack of promotion opportunities, limited female accommodation facilities, and inflexible school policies—have negatively affected the recruitment, retention, and promotion of female teachers in upper primary sections. Family-related responsibilities, including childcare and household obligations, further hinder female teachers from accepting or sustaining roles in upper primary levels, particularly in rural postings like Bulera where support systems are minimal, Additionally, the requirement for additional academic qualifications to teach in upper primary often excludes women who are unable to upgrade due to time, financial limitations, or lack of institutional support. According to the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES, 2021), more than 60% of female primary school teachers remain at Grade III certificate level, which limits their eligibility to teach upper classes that require higher pedagogical skills. Security concerns, especially for female teachers posted in isolated areas of Mityana District, also contribute to the reluctance to take up such roles.

Therefore, the problem this study seeks to address is the persistent low representation of female teachers in upper primary sections in Bulera Primary Schools, despite policy frameworks and affirmative actions aimed at gender parity. Understanding the interplay of socio-cultural, institutional, and personal barriers specific to the local context of Bulera is crucial in designing targeted strategies that support female teacher advancement and ensure inclusive educational development.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study is to investigate factors contributing to low representation of female teachers in upper primary section in Bulera Primary schools, Bulera Subcounty Mityana District

1.4 Objectives of the study

1. To examine the socio-cultural factors that influences the representation of female teachers in the upper primary section.
2. To assess institutional and policy-related barriers affecting the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools.

• To explore the personal and professional challenges that discourages female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions.

1.5 Research questions

1. What are the socio-cultural factors that influence the representation of female teachers in the upper primary section?
2. What are the institutional and policy-related barriers affecting the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools?

• What are the personal and professional challenges that discourage female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions?

1.6 Significance of study

The study is significant because it helps to uncover the root causes behind the gender imbalance in upper primary teaching positions. Despite the progress in gender parity in many education systems globally and in Uganda, female teachers remain underrepresented in upper primary sections. Understanding the factors contributing to this disparity whether they are personal, socio-cultural, institutional, or policy-related will provide stakeholders with evidence-based insights that can inform more inclusive recruitment and retention strategies. This research is therefore critical in promoting gender equity within the teaching profession and addressing systemic barriers that hinder women’s full participation.

Secondly, the findings from this study are essential for policymakers and education planners, especially within the Ministry of Education and Sports, as they design policies aimed at improving teacher distribution and gender responsiveness in the education sector. Identifying institutional gaps such as lack of promotion opportunities, gender-insensitive school environments, or absence of supportive infrastructure for female teachers can guide reforms and targeted interventions. These insights will contribute to the development of gender-sensitive frameworks that promote equal access to professional growth and participation for all teachers, regardless of gender.

Furthermore, the study will be useful for teacher training institutions and education NGOs working to empower female educators. By highlighting the challenges and perceptions that discourage women from teaching in upper primary, the research can support the design of capacity-building programs that address specific fears or limitations faced by aspiring female teachers. These may include mentorship programs, leadership training, and advocacy for improved working conditions particularly in rural or hard-to-reach schools where female presence is even more limited.

Finally, this study contributes to academic literature by providing updated, localized data on gender disparities in education staffing. While many global studies focus on female underrepresentation in leadership roles, less attention is given to the lower levels of representation in specific teaching categories such as upper primary. By focusing on this often-overlooked issue within the Ugandan context, the study fills a knowledge gap and sets a foundation for further research on gender dynamics in teacher deployment and professional sustainability. It can also serve as a comparative reference for similar studies in Sub-Saharan Africa and other developing regions.

1.7 Delimitations of the study

This study is delimited to examining the factors influencing the low representation of female teachers specifically in the upper primary section, rather than in lower primary, secondary, or tertiary education levels. Although gender disparities exist across all levels of education, the focus of this research is limited to Primary Five to Primary Seven within the Ugandan context, where the drop in female teacher numbers is most evident. This allows for a more detailed exploration of the unique challenges associated with upper primary teaching, such as content complexity and classroom management of older pupils, which are often perceived as barriers by female educators.

Secondly, the study is geographically delimited to selected schools within Uganda, with emphasis on both rural and urban public primary schools. It does not include private or international schools, which may have different teacher recruitment and retention dynamics. The reason for this boundary is to maintain a manageable scope and ensure contextual relevance to national education policies and public service structures, which are typically uniform across government-aided schools in Uganda.

Thirdly, the research focuses primarily on teachers, headteachers, and educational administrators as the main sources of data, and does not extend to learners, parents, or community leaders, despite their potential influence on female teacher representation. This delimitation is intentional to concentrate on the professional experiences, institutional challenges, and policy implications from an insider perspective, which are directly linked to recruitment, promotion, and workplace retention decisions within the school system.

Lastly, the study is delimited to three core thematic areas: socio-cultural factors, institutional and policy-related barriers, and personal and professional challenges, as outlined in the research objectives. Broader systemic issues such as national economic conditions, historical trends in gender and education, or global feminist movements are beyond the scope of this study, although they may provide useful context. This thematic focus ensures the study remains aligned with its specific aim of informing practical interventions to address the underrepresentation of female teachers in upper primary education in Uganda.

1.8 Definition of key terms

Upper primary refers to the later phase of primary education, typically covering the final years before a student transitions to secondary school. In many educational systems, including Uganda’s, upper primary comprises Primary Five (P.5) to Primary Seven (P.7), usually catering to children aged between 10 and 13 years. This stage builds upon the foundational skills acquired in the lower primary levels, focusing more on advanced literacy, numeracy, science, social studies, and critical thinking. Upper primary is a crucial period in a child’s academic journey, as it not only consolidates basic education but also prepares learners for the Primary Leaving Examinations (PLE), which determine entry into secondary education.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction of the study

This chapter presents the literature that has been reviewed in line with this study. The purpose of literature review is to establish the existing theoretical background of the study so that the investigation will not be carried out in void. Its presented according to the objectives of the study.

2.1 The socio-cultural factors that influences the representation of female teachers

Globally, societal norms and expectations regarding women’s roles have historically placed them in domestic and caregiving responsibilities, which in turn limit their access to education and professional development. According to UNESCO (2019), despite women comprising more than 60% of the teaching workforce in many countries, they remain underrepresented in upper primary, secondary, and leadership positions. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, women make up only 23% of secondary school teachers and an even smaller proportion in school leadership roles (UNESCO, 2019).

In many African societies, cultural norms dictate that women prioritize family responsibilities over professional ambitions, which directly impacts their career advancement. Sifuna and Chege (2006) argue that in Kenya and similar contexts, women often face resistance when aspiring for positions perceived to be male-dominated, such as upper primary or administrative teaching roles. These cultural attitudes discourage women from applying for promotions or further training, thereby limiting their representation.

Religious beliefs also play a critical role. In some conservative communities, religious interpretations restrict women’s roles to the private sphere, making teaching at higher levels, particularly in mixed-gender settings, culturally inappropriate. For instance, a study by Mahony and Hextall (2000) revealed that in some Islamic contexts, families and communities oppose women teaching adolescent boys, which significantly reduces the pool of female teachers available for upper primary and secondary levels.

Furthermore, societal perceptions of leadership and authority being masculine traits also discourage women from pursuing or being considered for senior roles in education. According to Lumby and Azaola (2011), in many parts of the world, including Latin America and Africa, leadership in schools is often equated with male characteristics, such as assertiveness and authority, creating bias against women educators.

Early marriage and motherhood also pose significant socio-cultural constraints. In Uganda, research by Muwonge et al. (2019) found that many women drop out of teacher training colleges due to pregnancy or early marriage, limiting the number of qualified female teachers. This issue is further compounded by lack of maternity support and child care facilities, which discourage mothers from returning to or continuing in the profession.

Additionally, gender stereotyping in education itself can discourage young girls from aspiring to become teachers. Stromquist (1995) notes that curricula and teacher attitudes in some contexts reinforce gender norms that portray teaching, especially at higher levels, as a male profession. As a result, fewer girls are motivated to pursue teaching careers beyond the primary level, socio-cultural factors such as traditional gender roles, religious beliefs, societal expectations, and gender stereotypes continue to hinder the equitable representation of female teachers, especially in higher-level teaching and leadership positions. Addressing these barriers requires comprehensive strategies including gender-sensitive policies, community sensitization, and targeted support for women educators.

2.2 Institutional and policy-related barriers affecting the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools

Institutional and policy-related barriers significantly hinder the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools, particularly in developing countries. Despite efforts toward gender equality in education, systemic challenges embedded in institutional practices and weak policy implementation continue to disadvantage women. One key institutional barrier is the lack of gender-sensitive recruitment and promotion procedures. According to UNESCO (2019), while women make up over 60% of the global teaching workforce at the primary level, they are underrepresented in upper primary and leadership roles due to biased recruitment and promotion systems that often favor men. For instance, in Uganda, female teachers constitute 67% of lower primary teaching staff, yet only 30% serve in upper primary sections and even fewer in headteacher roles (Ministry of Education and Sports [MoES], 2020).

Promotion criteria within educational institutions often lack transparency and are not aligned with the unique needs of female educators. Studies by Morley (2005) and Sutherland-Addy (2002) highlight that women are frequently evaluated against standards that overlook their dual responsibilities at work and home. Policies that fail to accommodate maternity leave, flexible working hours, or breastfeeding provisions act as deterrents to career progression. Moreover, promotion panels are often dominated by male administrators, resulting in implicit bias against women candidates. A study by Tadria (2007) in Uganda noted that women reported being overlooked for promotions due to assumptions that they could not handle demanding leadership roles.

The absence of effective gender mainstreaming in educational policies further exacerbates the issue. Although many countries, including Uganda, have ratified international frameworks such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the practical implementation of these policies at institutional levels remains weak. According to the Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE, 2015), only a few education systems in Sub-Saharan Africa have comprehensive policies promoting gender equality in teacher management, particularly in rural postings where female teachers are least represented.

Workplace harassment and lack of institutional support also contribute to poor retention of female teachers. UNESCO (2018) reports that in many countries, female teachers face sexual harassment, intimidation, and lack of mentorship, especially in male-dominated environments such as upper primary schools. These experiences often lead to burnout, low morale, or early resignation. Additionally, limited access to professional development opportunities reduces their competitiveness for promotions. In a study conducted in Kenya, Onyango and Wamahiu (2012) found that only 28% of women teachers had participated in leadership training programs compared to 64% of their male counterparts.

Furthermore, posting policies that assign female teachers to remote or insecure areas without adequate housing or family support structures discourage many from remaining in the profession or accepting promotions. According to a report by UNGEI (2019), female teachers in rural areas of Uganda face greater challenges due to poor infrastructure, lack of transportation, and family separation, which adversely affects retention, institutional and policy-related barriers such as gender-biased recruitment and promotion practices, weak enforcement of gender policies, inadequate support structures, and lack of professional development opportunities significantly constrain the recruitment, promotion, and retention of female teachers in upper primary schools. Addressing these challenges requires a deliberate gender-responsive approach to educational planning, policy reform, and institutional accountability mechanisms.

2.3 The personal and professional challenges that discourages female teachers from taking up or remaining in upper primary teaching positions.

There is a complex interplay of personal and professional challenges that hinder the recruitment and retention of female teachers in upper primary teaching positions. Personal responsibilities such as childbearing, household duties, and caregiving obligations continue to disproportionately affect women, making it difficult for them to commit fully to demanding teaching roles. According to Mwiria (2018), many female teachers struggle to balance teaching responsibilities with domestic roles, particularly in patriarchal societies where women are expected to prioritize family over career. This dual burden has been linked to high attrition rates among female teachers, especially those posted to rural or distant schools (UNESCO, 2019).

Professional challenges are equally significant. Studies by Njeri and Kimathi (2020) in Kenya found that female teachers face limited opportunities for promotion, lack of mentorship, and gender bias in school leadership appointments, which demotivates many from pursuing or staying in upper primary roles. Moreover, school postings often place female teachers in environments lacking adequate facilities, safety, and housing, especially in remote areas—an issue emphasized by Muhwezi et al. (2021), who noted that nearly 40% of female teachers in rural Uganda left their positions due to insecurity and poor accommodation conditions. This issue is compounded by school policies that lack gender sensitivity, offering little support for maternity leave, child care, or flexible working arrangements (Tuyizere et al., 2022).

Furthermore, the absence of female role models and professional networks in upper primary teaching also discourages entry and continuity. According to a report by the Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE, 2020), female teachers expressed feeling isolated and undervalued in upper primary positions compared to their male counterparts. In Uganda, a Ministry of Education and Sports report (2023) indicated that only 38% of upper primary teaching staff were women, attributing this to harsh working conditions and limited career progression opportunities for female teachers.

Additionally, cultural and societal expectations play a role. In many African contexts, teaching older children is viewed as a role more suited for male teachers due to discipline and authority stereotypes. A study by Kaggwa and Akankwasa (2024) in Uganda revealed that 62% of school administrators still held biases favoring male teachers for upper primary roles, believing they are better at managing senior pupils. Such attitudes contribute to a hostile work climate that demoralizes female teachers and hinders their professional growth.

2.4 Summary

Societal norms and cultural expectations continue to limit women’s participation in upper primary teaching roles. Globally, although women dominate the teaching workforce numerically, they are underrepresented in higher teaching levels and leadership. In Sub-Saharan Africa, only 23% of secondary school teachers are women. Cultural beliefs prioritize women’s domestic responsibilities, discourage career advancement, and reinforce male dominance in upper-level teaching. Religious doctrines in conservative communities, such as Islamic regions, often bar women from teaching older boys. Societal perceptions that leadership is a masculine trait further limit female teachers’ promotion. Early marriage, motherhood, and lack of maternity and childcare support also hinder women’s continuity in the profession. Gender stereotypes in curriculum and school environments discourage young girls from pursuing upper-level teaching careers.

Institutions often lack gender-sensitive recruitment and promotion frameworks, disadvantaging women. Although women are the majority in lower primary teaching roles, few hold upper primary or leadership positions. Promotion processes often overlook women’s dual roles at home and work, and male-dominated panels may show bias. Many policies supporting gender equality are poorly implemented. Harassment, lack of mentorship, and limited access to leadership training worsen retention. Remote postings without adequate infrastructure or family support deter many female teachers. Weak enforcement of supportive policies, such as maternity leave or professional development, reduces women’s chances of advancement.

Female teachers face a dual burden of domestic responsibilities and professional demands, leading to high attrition especially in rural or remote postings. Limited promotion opportunities, lack of mentorship, and gender-biased leadership practices demotivate women. Poor working and living conditions in schools, such as insecurity and inadequate housing, discourage retention. Absence of female role models and professional networks contributes to feelings of isolation. Societal biases continue to perceive male teachers as more capable of handling senior pupils, creating a hostile and demoralizing work environment for female teachers.