Computer Games Strategy and enhancement of literacy Skills Development among Kindergarten Children in Makindye Municipality Kampala District.

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

This chapter consisted of the background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study, scope of the study, operational definition of terms, theoretical framework and conceptual framework.

Background of the Study

Historical Background

Globally contemporary notions of literacy skills development now extend beyond traditional print formats, and a rethinking of the kinds of literacy   Skills development that will be required for full social and economic participation in the 21st century is well under way. Yet schools for the most part still view literacy from a traditional perspective (Castells, 2000; Tyner, 1998). Outside of school the new generation of learners, frequently referred to as ‘digital natives’ (Prensky, 2006), are regularly immersed in a wide variety of new electronic media and as a consequence are developing knowledge and skills that increasingly diverge from those that are valued in school (Lankshear & Knobel, 2006). In light of these dramatic changes and because of the failure of schools to respond, prominent educational and media researchers are calling for the revision of traditional pen-and-paper curricula to include multiple media for the representation, production, and dissemination of knowledge (New London Group, 1996; Cope & Kalantzis, 2000; Kress, 2003).

Globally the strong, widespread appeal of computer gaming strategy to today’s literacy Skills development has motivated a number of researchers to look for meaningful ways to understand the principles behind learning through games, so as to better the educational potential (de Castell & Jenson, 2003). Prominent educational theorists have argued that successful recreational games employ many principles of effective learning (Gee, 2003; Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004; Prensky, 2006). Computer Game strategies create opportunities for situated learning by providing immersive and motivating contexts for players to engage in a wide variety of activities and to develop and practice the skills necessary to be successful in those activities (Gee, 2003; Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, & Gee, 2005). A number of attributes common to computer games are recognized as critical in fostering active engagement, motivation, and high levels of persistence in game play (see Garris, Ahlers, & Driskell, 2002 for a more complete review). These include the use of high resolution media to create immersive environments and simulate quasi-realistic sensory experiences for the players (Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004); providing opportunities for identity exploration and play through the inclusion of fantasy, narrative, and role-playing (Gee, 2003; Squire, Jenkins, Holland et al., 2003); and creating a sense of pride and accomplishment through structuring the computer game play in complex ways that will challenge the player at the “edge of their region of competence” and allow for progress through trial-and-error experimentation (Gee, 2003). Successful computer games strategies support players through creating scaffolds, or built-in cues, hints, and practical solutions to keep them immersed in the game (FAS, 2006).

The motivational power of the best computer games strategy keeps players involved in them for many hours, and their game play designs allow players to experience flow a state of optimal engagement characterized by a deep immersion into an activity, accompanied by heightened concentration, motivation, and sense of fulfillment (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991; Inal & Cagiltay, 2007). Researchers have noted that the social aspect of collaborative or competitive game play  fosters learning through team-playing (Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004) and group problem-solving (Kiili, 2007), and offers opportunities for players to cooperate not only within the game, but also within the larger community of the computer game’s strategies  fans through websites and online forums (Shaffer et al., 2005).

In Africa if computer games are to find their way into regular schooling and be supported by the broader educational community, systematic and multi-faceted research on their effectiveness needs to be undertaken (FAS, 2006). To date, there is insufficient research beyond anecdotal evidence that would support computer game use in the classroom in Africa (Bonk & Dennen, 2004; Dempsey, Haynes, Lucassen, & Casey, 2002; Gredler, 2004). A series of early experimental studies looked at the impact of specific computer game and simulation attributes on student motivation, learning performance, and perceived self-efficacy (Cordova & Lepper, 1996; Parker & Lepper, 1992). These studies identified four key factors that contributed to increasing student motivation and engagement in learning: the provision of a narrative context for the computer game; the incorporation of fantasy elements in a game; the inclusion of opportunities for players to make choices during game play; and the provision of opportunities for the incidental personalization of the games activity by the player.

More recently, several qualitative case studies investigated the educational potential of computer gaming. McFarlane, Sparrowhawk, and Heald (2002) conducted an evaluation of educationally relevant commercial and ‘edutainment’ computer games in 12 elementary schools. They found that while playing  specific computer games students engaged in deductive reasoning, collaborative problem-solving, cooperative learning, and peer-tutoring. Teachers in the study saw several educational benefits to the use of the games, including developing students’ communicative, collaborative, and strategic-planning skills. In a similar study six different computer games were deployed in 11 secondary schools in Britain (Becta, 2001). The study reported that computer gaming promoted literacy development very effectively through combining high interactivity with an appealing and novel narrative context. Additionally, pupil motivation, collaboration, and task persistence were high, and there was evidence of social construction of knowledge.

There are no published studies to date on the effects of computer game strategy and enhancement of literacy Skills development in kindergarten as opposed to game play as a pedagogical activity. Giving pupils opportunities to input their own content into computer games can be a powerful motivational tool that contributes to a sense of pride and accomplishment, and facilitates learning (Gee, 2003). The primary roadblock to utilizing computer game strategy design for literacy Skills development in a kindergarten school context is the lack of expertise on the part of pupils and teachers who do not possess the complex skills required to create computer games.

Conceptual Background

The term “computer games strategy” is usually identified with the term of video game, only while playing computer games children are using only by computer. Computer games are more widespread because they can be used for fun and for learning. Usually, they have been categorized as: Shooting games, Fighting games, Strategies, Role-playing game or RPG and Massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) (Holzinger, 2015).

The use of computer games in learning  have strategies that helps the child to understand what is taught in class and these include concentration, engagement, attention, imitation, problem solving and the sense of fulfilment (Becta, 2001).

Although computer games strategy mainly provide entertainment and fun they also improve hand/eye coordination and problem-solving skills. Each game has its own strategy, action and fantasy that make each game unique and interesting. Generally, we can classify computer games into the following types: card games, board games, puzzles, maze, fighting, action, adventure, role playing, strategy, sports and simulation game (Harter & Heng-Yu 2011). However, the classification is a fuzzy concept, as many games are hybrids that fall into more than one class. For example, Doom can be classified either as a maze game or an action game, while Monopoly can be classified as a board game or strategy game. The different types of computer games are briefly described as follows: Card Games They are computerized versions of traditional card games, or games which are essentially like card games in that they are primarily card-based (such as solitaire). Examples of card games include Blackjack, Bridge, Casino, Solitaire and Video Poker. Board Games They are adaptations of classic board games. Examples of board games include Chess, Checkers, Backgammon, Scrabble and Monopoly (Moreno, 2012). Puzzles Puzzle games aim at figuring out of a solution, which often involves solving enigmas, navigation, learning how to use different tools, and the manipulating or reconfiguring of objects. Mastermind and Tetris are examples of puzzle games. Maze Maze games require the successful navigation of a maze. Mazes can be viewed in different ways. For example, they may appear in an overhead view (as in Pac-Man), or first-person perspective (as in Doom). Fighting Fighting games involve characters who fight usually hand-to-hand, in one-to-one combat situations. The fighters are usually represented as humans or animated characters. Fighting games include Street Fighter, Avengers and Body Slam (Huang Wen-Hao, 2010).

Computer games strategies directly support learning by giving pupils an opportunity to develop knowledge and cognitive skills in an emotional way, to make decisions in critical situations by solving problems, to learn by researching and to experience situational learning (Cameron & Dwyer 2015). By using computer games strategy pupils discover and develop their abilities and literacy skills, gain experience, learn and create. Games develop imagination and creativity.  Since Computer games strategies  have their meaningful context (Çankaya & Karamete 2016), learning becomes a situation contributing to the formation of a competent and confident individual. Computer Games are the best motivation for literacy Skills development and activities. Computer games  these are strategies which can be integrated into the teaching process.

Literacy is traditionally meant as the ability to read and write . The modern term’s meaning has been expanded to include the ability to use language, numbers, images, computers, and other basic means to understand, communicate, gain useful knowledge, solve mathematical problems and use the dominant symbol systems of a culture (Bonk, 2004).. The concept of literacy is expanding in OECD countries to include skills to access knowledge through technology and ability to assess complex contexts. A person who travels and resides in a foreign country but is unable to read or write in the language of the host country would also be regarded by the locals as being illiterate (Bonk, 2004).

The key to literacy skills development is reading development, a progression of skills that begins with the ability to understand spoken words and decode written words, and culminates in the deep understanding of text. Reading development involves a range of complex language underpinnings including awareness of speech sounds (phonology), spelling patterns (orthography), word meaning (semantics), grammar (syntax) and patterns of word formation (morphology), all of which provide a necessary platform for reading fluency and comprehension (Cameron, 2015).

Theoretical Background

Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development

The cognitive development theory by Jean Piaget contends that there are different phases of intellectual development and each stage is associated with certain behavioral activities. It is these activities that guide educators and theorists in literacy on what is and what is not tenable. Educationalists using this theory believe that the nature of content that is given to pupils for learning must relate their level of intellectual development. In other ways, the emphasis is sequencing learner’s activities based on their stages of intellectual development. This position is based on Piaget’s theory that children’s cognitive growth occurs in a sequential pattern through four related stages (Castells, 2000). In this way, what and how a child learns is determined largely by the child’s present stage of development. The Theory of Cognitive Development was conceptualized by Jean Piaget in 1969 who is classified as both a constructivist an a developmental theorist. It is one of the most famous theories used to explain children’s overall cognitive development. It can be used by literacy educators to understand the learning stages though which pupils’ progress as they mature and their relationship to literacy achievement Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development describes the ways in which the quality of children’s thinking changes over time based on their intellectual development. According to Piaget, there are four factors that affect the quality of an individual’s thinking: biological maturation, activity, social experiences and equilibration (Gee, 2003).

Emergent Literacy Theory

The Emergent Literacy Theory states that there are levels of literacy behaviours which children acquire before they formally get into classroom which facilitates the acquisition of reading and writing skills at a conventional level. Emergent literacy theorists believe that literacy development starts in the maternity ward and is continuous and ongoing. This early literacy development provides educators with instructional guidance to promote early literacy growth among their pupil’s (Din, & Calao 2010. Theorists believe that children’s development in the areas of listening, speaking, reading, and writing are all interrelated. In other ways, Emergent Literacy Theorists believe that children’s listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills begin at birth, it also emphasizes the importance of a literacy rich home environment. Components of a literacy rich home environment include; having large number of books available in the home, Newspapers and Magazines, Parents read a variety of materials and Reading is associated with pleasure, Parents frequently read to children (Harter & Heng 2011).

Marie Clay’s studies on emergent literacy indicated that children know a great deal about reading and writing before they come to school, and they are able to experiment with and apply their knowledge in various ways (Clay, 1975). Reading readiness seemed to be an inaccurate term, since Clay’s research showed that there was not a specific sequence of skills children needed to master prior to reading and writing. The children she studied seemed instead to “emerge” into literacy with writing, reading, and oral language abilities developing together Karakus T., (2012).

Emergent literacy was recently defined as “the view that literacy learning begins at birth and is encouraged through participation with adults in meaningful activities; these literacy behaviors change and eventually become conventional over time” (Lopez-Morteo & Lopez 2014). From a very young age, children who are exposed to oral and written language gradually gain control over the forms of literacy. Print-related knowledge develops similarly to the way children learn oral language (Morrow, 1997). When children are actively engaged with interesting and meaningful reading and writing experiences, they develop literacy knowledge early in their lives (Mitchell, & Savill-Smith 2004).

Contextual Background

Over the last fourteen years (2003 to 2017), schools in Uganda have witnessed an increasing frequency rate of decline in literacy development among the in pupils especially in the kindergarten level of learning. This Problem is attributed to failure of most of the kindergarten schools in Uganda to adopt the use of computer games in the learning curriculum such that the pupils can be enhanced in literacy development (Lim, 2014).

In Uganda, Rukundo (2009) conducted a study on relationship between computer puzzle games   and learning among children in two primary schools of Ntungamo District and identified that these computer puzzle games have done much to improve on the child learning.

The previous studies only focused on computer puzzle games. In addition, the most previous studies focused on primary schools. This therefore necessitates a study to focus on all computer games and basically in kindergarten schools. Hence the need to design a study specifically to investigate the how computer game strategy enhances literacy development using the case of Biotec Kindergarten Makindye Municipality Kabalagara and Mirembe Nursery School Kisugu Makindye Municipality.

Problem Statement

The kindergarten level of education is the level at which the children’s literacy level has to be enhanced such that the children pay more attention on what they read and write, because it is the basis on the future success of the children in education. According to Kebritchi, (2014) literacy development at this level can be increased by introducing materials that can increase the  morale among the children like the use of computer game strategy in teaching and learning.

However in Uganda, literacy skill development at the kindergarten level is low and this is attributed to the failure of many kindergarten schools to adopt the use of computer games in conducting studies, Instead they use chalk board method (teacher centered) (MoES report 2015).The computer games can  demonstrate for the child what to do,  allows the child to participate or be part of the learning process  and also imitative games can help the child to imitate what the computer does and this can help the child to learn.  But the current learning framework designed by the national curriculum development center remains silent about the use of computer games strategy in learning at the kindergarten level which has hindered literacy skills development.  If these kindergarten do not adopt to such strategies, the children’s education at the kindergarten level will decline and the children will finish kindergarten with no creative mind, no concept or ordering and routine aspect. Similarly letter formation competence will take long to be achieved leading to inadequate learning (Burguillo, 2010). It is upon this basis that this study came out to assess how computer strategy enhance literacy skills development in kindergarten level using a case study of Biotec Kindergarten Kabalagala , Ebenezer Kindergarten, Silver Spoon Nursury School and Mirembe Nursery School Kisugu all in Makindye Municipality.

Purpose

The purpose of the study was to assess how computer games strategy enhance literacy Skills development in kindergarten level in Mankindye Municipality Kampala District

Objectives

The study was guided by the following specific objectives; to

• Investigate how imitation as a computer game strategy enhances reading skills.
• Determine the effect of participation as a computer games strategy on ordering and spelling of letters skills.
• Assess how demonstration as a computer game strategy affects formation of letters skills.

Research Questions

1) How the imitation as a computer game strategy enhance reading?

2) What is the effect of participation as a computer games strategy on ordering and spelling of letters?

3) How does how demonstration as a computer game strategy affects formation of letters?

Significance

This study results may be  beneficial to teachers, head teachers, government and researchers in the following ways.

The teachers may use the study results to get more information about the appropriate strategies they use so that they can take informed decisions in increasing learning among kindergarten child.  The researcher believes that the findings may help the management of schools  in way of increasing on the understating of the children in school  such that they can excel according to the needs  a of the schools

It is hoped that head teachers and school governing bodies may use this information to identify the different games that they can use to literacy development.

The findings of the study may bring out the different games and how they can be beneficial in learning and this will help the school authorities to identify and adopt to such games.

The Education authorities at the district and central government through ministry of education and sports (MOES) may use the information in the study to properly support, the schools in the adoption of computer games in teaching. The researcher believes that the results may be beneficial to the Ministry of Education and national curriculum of education in getting ways of delivering knowledge to the young children.

Scholars and researchers may use the study results as a reference for related studies in future. The results may help the future researcher who may wish to carry out research in the same field of study and they may use the results as reference.

Scope

Content scope

The study sought to assess how computer games as a strategy enhances literacy skills development in kindergarten, specifically it looked at how imitation as a computer game strategy enhances reading skills, the effect of participation as a computer games strategy on ordering and spelling of letters skills and how demonstration as a computer game strategy affects formation of letters skills.

Geographical scope

The study was carried out in four kindergartens which are located in Makindye Municipality Kampala Division.

Time scope

The research will be conducted from February-August 2018, Data consideration period from the case study will be 20014-2018 and the literature review will be 2000 -2018.

Conceptual framework

 Independent Variable                                                           Dependent Variable

Intervening Variable

                     Figure 1: Conceptual framework

The figure above shows that computer game strategy (independent variable) affects the literacy skills development (dependent variable). This means that the different computer game strategies like imitation, participation and demonstration have a bigger effect on the literacy development like reading, letter formation, ordering of letters among others. However for this relationship to work it depends on the age of the children, skills and knowledge of the teacher and level of attitude and perception of the children.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

This chapter presented the review of literature; the chapter is arranged into three sections, the theoretical review, actual literature according to the study objectives and summary to the reviewed literature. The literature was reviewed from both published and unpublished documents which are both in electronic and non-electronic form.

Theoretical review

Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development

The cognitive development theory by Jean Piaget contends that there are different phases of intellectual development and each stage is associated with certain behavioral activities. It is these activities that guide educators and theorists in literacy on what is and what is not tenable. Educationalists using this theory believe that the nature of content that is given to pupils for learning must relate their level of intellectual development. In other ways, the emphasis is sequencing learner’s activities based on their stages of intellectual development. This position is based on Piaget’s theory that children’s cognitive growth occurs in a sequential pattern through four related stages (Castells, 2000). In this way, what and how a child learns is determined largely by the child’s present stage of development. The Theory of Cognitive Development was conceptualized by Jean Piaget in 1969 who is classified as both a constructivist an a developmental theorist. It is one of the most famous theories used to explain children’s overall cognitive development. It can be used by literacy educators to understand the learning stages though which pupils’ progress as they mature and their relationship to literacy achievement Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development describes the ways in which the quality of children’s thinking changes over time based on their intellectual development. According to Piaget, there are four factors that affect the quality of an individual’s thinking: biological maturation, activity, social experiences and equilibration (Gee, 2003).

Emergent Literacy Theory

The Emergent Literacy Theory states that there are levels of literacy behaviours which children acquire before they formally get into classroom which facilitates the acquisition of reading and writing skills at a conventional level. Emergent literacy theorists believe that literacy development starts in the maternity ward and is continuous and ongoing. This early literacy development provides educators with instructional guidance to promote early literacy growth among their pupil’s (Din, & Calao 2010. Theorists believe that children’s development in the areas of listening, speaking, reading, and writing are all interrelated. In other ways, Emergent Literacy Theorists believe that children’s listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills begin at birth, it also emphasizes the importance of a literacy rich home environment. Components of a literacy rich home environment include; having large number of books available in the home, Newspapers and Magazines, Parents read a variety of materials and Reading is associated with pleasure, Parents frequently read to children (Harter & Heng 2011).

Marie Clay’s studies on emergent literacy indicated that children know a great deal about reading and writing before they come to school, and they are able to experiment with and apply their knowledge in various ways (Clay, 1975). Reading readiness seemed to be an inaccurate term, since Clay’s research showed that there was not a specific sequence of skills children needed to master prior to reading and writing. The children she studied seemed instead to “emerge” into literacy—with writing, reading, and oral language abilities developing together Karakus T., (2012).

Emergent literacy was recently defined as “the view that literacy learning begins at birth and is encouraged through participation with adults in meaningful activities; these literacy behaviors change and eventually become conventional over time” (Lopez-Morteo & Lopez 2014). From a very young age, children who are exposed to oral and written language gradually gain control over the forms of literacy. Print-related knowledge develops similarly to the way children learn oral language (Morrow, 1997). When children are actively engaged with interesting and meaningful reading and writing experiences, they develop literacy knowledge early in their lives (Mitchell, & Savill-Smith 2004).

Empirical Literature review

How Imitation as a Computer Game Strategy Enhance Reading among Kindergarten Children.

Imitation is a computer game strategy and it has affected the reading skills of children at the kindergarten level in the following ways;

Imitation as computer game strategy has helped or enhanced reading in preschool through developing auditory perceptual skills such as auditory detection, discrimination, recognition, sequencing, and memory. The blend of these skills allow for vocabulary development, proper grammar skills, future reading skills, and the ability to listen in background noise. These skills, when weak, can be enhanced by repatterning how the ear responds to surrounding sounds. The best time to repattern these skills is during the preschool years, as the brain is still growing. This can be done with imitating activities that exercise the specific weaknesses over a long period of time (Papastergiou, 2010).

Imitation as a computer game strategy in enhancing reading become extremely important when the child enters a learning environment such as a preschool. They are equally important to their social development as they attend and imitate in conversations. Imitating to spoken language is an integral part of developing speech, language, and communication (Ping Lim, 2015). A preschool child also enjoys listening to music, songs, and stories. Some children enjoy music but can’t listen to conversation for long periods of time. Other children can listen and attend only as long as a visual picture is also present like the television. Each of these children have different listening skills, some of which can have a negative response in a school environment. However imitation can help a child to understand what is important and be able to engage in the activity after the imitation exercise or even learns instantly from the imitating game (Cameron, 2015).

Imitation is important in ensuring that the child gets reading skills. However, for the preschool child imitation is essential in helping a child develop and reach their fullest potential.  Imitation can help a child to become a decision maker, the child wall ensure that what he or she watches on the screen concerning the imitation is used after imitation. If the child finds out that decision can be made without any obstacle, he will learn that if there is a need to make a decision, he or she will be abler to decide and this will motivate the child to learn how to read (Bonk, 2004).

Imitation is vital in building a child’s cognitive, behavioral and affective aspects. It is essential they develop this ability to interact and communicate with the world efficiently. By building the foundation and being competent in the auditory and thought awareness facets, children are prepared and equipped to face intellectual, social and emotional endeavors. There are numerous advantages when these two skills are developed and honed (Lopez-Morteo, 2014).

Children commonly learn through imitation and paying attention to what they see and hear around them. As they gain more knowledge and experience, they develop their own ideas, interests and preferences. They filter important facts and opinions through active listening. Moreover, they concentrate on the main points of discussion and events to know the consequences. Understanding such things enables children to guide their self-inquiry and discover their individual possibilities (McFarlane, 2012).

In her book “Maternal & Child Health Nursing: Care of the Childbearing & Childrearing Family,” Adele Pillitteri explains that imitation is an effective way to deepen communication and foster relationships. As children start to interact, socialize and mingle with their peers, they need to be ready to listen and give their attention. Children who feel appreciated and valued are more likely to confide their feelings to their acquaintances. Cultivating the skill in active listening can in this way facilitate day-to-day affairs and the formation of lasting friendships which helps them in reading (Harter, 2011).

Imitation can be used to develop important speaking skills. In many professional contexts, people need to be able to speak up in a group. They may need to offer information, ask questions, or argue for a different solution. People don’t learn to speak up in a group by reading about how to do it it’s one of those skills best developed with practice. And it’s one of those skills that develops better with feedback. If imitation is being used to teach children this public communication skill, they will need feedback (Huang Wen-Hao, 2010).

Albert Bandura, one of the pioneers of observational learning, notes that learning can take place by imitating or hearing about other people’s actions. For example, if a child sees his brother get high marks and is rewarded, the child would then strive for a better grade to get an incentive. This is how children draw from the behavior modeled by various people, be it family members, friends or television characters; in turn, they develop a unique pattern of behavioral responses and expectancies. Hence, they need to improve their capacity to listen carefully and focus on the task at hand (Karakus, 2012).

Children who are focused on imitating and understanding subject matter grasp the content more clearly and easily. Children who are active listeners can incorporate the things they hear faster in their framework of knowledge than a more passive counterpart. These children may also exhibit better concentration and memory. Alert and observant children thus have a higher chance of good grades and outstanding comprehension of lessons and also learning how to read (Karakus, 2012)

Imitation can help a child to improve his vocabulary, grammar and reading ability. If the child is not getting some think from an example or from the imitator, he might struggle to pick up on mistakes he is making with his speech, since he will not hear what others have to say. Reading skills can also suffer if the child does not have adequate listening skills, since he might not pay attention to the words when someone else is reading to him (Kebritchi, 2014).

When the child begins school, imitation increases his listening skills and attention span increase in importance. At this age, she or he will begin interacting with other children regularly and will have to retain information based on these interactions. The child’s self-concept and social life are dependent on what he or she learns from the imitation (Kiili, 2007).

If your child is struggling with his attention skills, a few signals could arise. He could have issues with following directions, having conversations with others or learning new words. He could also struggle with basic preschool concepts, like counting or learning different colors. Many children outgrow these problems over time, as they begin imitating better once they realize that they do not know these things. In other children, however, intervention from a language specialist might become necessary (Becta, (2001).

The Effect of Participation as a Computer Game Strategy on Ordering of Letters skills

Participation is a computer game strategy and it has affected ordering of letters skills at the kindergarten level of education in the following;

Participation as computer game strategy provides an opportunity to the child to learn through their own contribution, and through the contribution of their fellow students. Through discussion, the child can gain practice in thinking through problems, organizing concepts, formulating arguments, testing their ideas in a public setting, evaluating the evidence for their own and others’ positions, and responding thoroughly to critical and diverse points of view (Bonk, & Dennen, 2004). Ewens (2000) suggests that compared to traditional lecture style teaching, encouraging classroom participation promotes a higher level of reflective thinking, and problem solving, including application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, and that information learned through discussion, is generally retained better than information learned through lecture. For example, participation has been found to significantly influence critical thinking skills, problem solving skills, and increased student motivation. Students who are active participants have been shown to retain more information after the end of the course, and perceive more satisfaction with the course as opposed to students who do not participate (Bonk, & Dennen, 2004).

Scholars have also argued convincingly that the exchange of ideas within the classroom, is essential to child learning. Classroom participation is very important for student learning, because the students are not passive vessels in which we pour information. But to teach themselves, they need to question, discuss, share their ideas, and insights with others. Teachers must be able to present their material, effectively manage their classrooms, facilitate maximum student involvement, and ultimately, enhance students’ learning. Classroom participation has been suggested to facilitate students in developing critical understanding, self-awareness, appreciation for diverse perspectives, and an ability to be proactive. During class participation, students are active, and are responsible for their own learning (Çankaya, 2016).

There are so many benefits of classroom participation as a result of computer game for children in the classroom. Classroom participation can help students to perform better in school. According to Burguillo, (2010) , higher levels of classroom participation also tended to score slightly higher on personality traits of openness and consciousness. Classsroom participation can send positive signals to students about the kind of learning and thinking such as growth in critical thinking, active learning, development of listening, and speaking skills needed for career success, and the ability to join a disciplined conversation. Din, (2010), identified that when students see that their participation is being graded regularly and consistently, they adjust their study habits accordingly to be prepared for active participation. Students’ enthusiasm, involvement, and willingness to participate affect the quality of class discussion as an opportunity for learning.

Participation through the use of computer games can be used to balance who’s learning in class and how much.  When the children participate in the ordering of letters following what the computers are doing, the teacher can be able to see the level of learning of each child and those that are still behind will be considered. However if children are not given a chance to participate in class, they won’t be able to learn how to form letters because the teacher will not be able to know who knows and those who does not know (Castells, 2000).

Participation as a computer game strategy create a climate in which children are encouraged to ask questions. Make it clear to children that you want them to ask questions. Point out that their questions help you by indicating where you might not have been clear. Emphasize that there is no such thing as a dumb question, and make sure to not allow children to ridicule a classmate’s questions. This will therefore help a child to top ask questions concerning how he or she can be able to order the letters and hence making the child to obtain literacy skills (Huang Wen-Hao, 2010).

Participation as computer game strategy helps to take the student’s questions and comments seriously. The children reluctance to ask a question or volunteer an answer might be due to a lack of confidence. Help him or her gain the courage to participate by showing respect for his contributions and giving thoughtful answers to his questions. Listen attentively while he is talking; do not interrupt him or her. Try to find something positive to say about his comments, such as “That’s an interesting step. I never thought about it that way” or “That’s a really creative idea (Karakus 2012).”

2.4 How demonstration as a computer game strategy affect ordering of letters skills among the kindergarten children

Demonstration is a computer game strategy and it has affected ordering of letters skills among the kindergarten level in the following ways;

Demonstration as compeer game strategy can help to ensure attention among the children. When the demonstration is taking place by the computer, the child will make sure that is attentive to maters whatever step the computer is following in the formation of letters. This is because the child will be sure that in case he or she missed one step, he or she will not be able to form how that letter is formed. This therefore will make the child more attentive and hence improving on their ability of learning how to form letters (Castells, 2000).

Demonstration as a computer game strategy builds confidence in the child, in most cases the child might not be confidence in him or herself that he or she can be able to form a letters. However when the child sees the demonstration of the formation of letter. He or she will gain that confidence that he or she can also form it. This is because the demonstration will show  the steps that the child has to follow in the formation of letters and it will show the final letter formed which will give the child more confidence to form it (Lankshear & Knobel, 2006).

Demonstration as a computer game strategy gives patience ion a child. Since the demonstration is step by step, the child will be patience to wait until the last step when the letter is formed. The child wall be able to follow each step of the formation ad at each step the child will be learning until the last step when the letter is formed. Unlike other strategies, the computer game strategy is interesting to the child and this will make the child to love the prices and be patience to wait and see the outcome (Lee, 2015).

Demonstration as a computer game strategy can help the child to also questions concerning the entire process of forming letters. The child will be following each step in the demonstration and the step where the child finds him or herself not will be able to ask the question such that the facilitator or the teacher can explain to the child before the end of the demonstration. This means that the teacher will have to pause the computer and answer the child question before the end iof the formation such that the child is not left behind (Mitchell, 2004).

Demonstration as a computer game strategy leads to systemic learning. This is because the child will be able to learn step by step as the process or procedure continues. In formation of letters, it is important to learn each step followed such that you are not left behind. Therefore at each step where the computer will demonstrate them, the child will be mastering each step and this will help the child to learn note on the formation of letters and hence improving on the formation of letters by the child (Lee, 2015).

Demonstration by the use computer games hells a child to analyses the formation of letters. The child will watch the demonstration many times to ensure that he or she analyses the important steps followed and also to see that he or she can come up with the best sample.  The child  will keeping analyzing the formed letters and he or she will ensure that at the end of the demonstration, the child will be able to have the best results  and also to learn more on how to form a letter without a mistake (Lim, 2014).

Demonstration is important as comport game strategy in that it will make the child to master the steps followed in the formation of letters,. There are many steps that are supposed to be followed in formation letter and if the child is demonstrated on these step, the child will be able to learn each and very strep. This will therefore help to make the child not forget the different critical steps and this will be the best way of learning how to form different letters (Lopez-Morteo, 2014).

Demonstration   by use of computers is the quickest way of learning forming letters, unlike other methods of teaching the child to form letters, when the child is demonstrated by the computer on the steps that he or she is supposed to follow in formation of letters. The child will be able to learn in the shortest period of time in case of the interest that the child will have from viewing the demonstration from the computers (Cameron, 2015).

Demonstration provide opportunities for the children to practice his or her idea in the formation off letters by taking the time to copy from the demonstration taking place. The idea is to help the child feel more comfortable talking with one person so, in time, he will feel more confident speaking up whatever is not understanding. Find a few minutes every so often to talk with him about his favorite activities and interests. Or speak with him when he is doing an art project or a writing assignment. Ask questions, so he can explain what he is doing, but be sure the questions are non-threatening (Becta, 2001).

Conclusion

In conclusion it is vital that schools adopt the use of computer video games in their teaching curriculum. According to literature from the different authors above, the video games have played a very big role in the literacy skills development among the kindergarten children through helping a child to participate in the learning, the child can imitate what the computer is doing and also the computer can demonstrate to the child what to do. However there are some gaps that the above authors left out that needs to filled like on how best schools can use computer games to achieve the best literacy skills among the kindergarten. The above literature was compared with the findings that were got after data collection exercise and a conclusion was drawn on the purpose of the study.

Hypothesis of the study

• Computer games as a strategy enhances Literacy skills development among kindergarten children.
• Computer games as a strategy dose not enhance Literacy skills development among kindergarten children.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter presented the approaches and techniques the researcher used to collect data and investigate the research problem. The arrangement of the chapter was as follows: research design, study population, sample size, data collection methods, data collection instruments, data quality control, data analysis and measurement of variables.

Research design

A cross sectional and descriptive survey design was used to conduct the study. According to Ezeani (2002), a cross-sectional survey is the best because it is used to gather information on a population at a single point in time. A cross sectional survey design is simple, less time consuming and least costly alternative. The study applied both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The mixed approach was applied in sample selection, and data collection. Amin (2003) supports the use of a mixed approach because multiple methods help to research a problem from all sides; usage of different approaches also helps to focus on a single process and confirms the data accuracy. Qualitative research enabled the researcher to explore new areas, deal with value laden-questions, build theories, and to do in-depth examination of phenomena. Quantitative research allowed the researcher to measure and analyze data. It also made the research findings more objective (Amin, 2003).

Study population

A population is the aggregate or totality of objects or individuals having one or more characteristics in common that are of interest to the researcher and where inferences are to be made, Amin (2005). For Sekeran(2003), it is the abstract of a large group of many cases from which a researcher draws a sample and to which results from a sample are generalized. The study consisted of a population of 100 and these were from the four schools and  included the directors of the schools, the head teachers, the teachers and the bursars of the schools and this population involved people from all the levels of preschool that is to say baby class level, Middle class level and Top class level. The researcher believed that this category of people was knowledgeable enough about the area of study and was able to avail him with the necessary data about the study.

Sample size

The study was drawn based on a sample size of 80. The sample size was  selected based on the sample size table by Krejcie and Morgan (1970 pp. 607-610). Assert that where a total population is 100, a sample size 80 is sufficient as it is attached on the appendix.

Table 3.1 showing the target population and the sample size:

Source: Primary Source

Sampling procedures and techniques

Simple Random Sampling

The researcher used probability (simple random sampling) because of the nature of study, which required getting particular information from the respondents. Best and Khan (2003) explain that this type of technique ensured that all the elements in the population had equal chances of being selected. Before applying simple random sampling, the researcher constructed a sample frame with all the elements and then randomly select the sample using simple random sampling.

Stratified Random Sampling

The researcher used stratified sampling method to select the sample that took part in the study. This method involved dividing the population into different stratas and then the respondents were selected from each stratum. This method was used because it gave equal chance to the population in the strata to be chosen and avoided biasness in the selection because all respondents were chosen on probability.

Purposive sampling

The researcher used Purposive Sampling technique where by respondents were selected by the researcher basing on the level of knowledge about the topic and the topic and the period they have spent/serviced the school in the school (not less than 6 month). This method was used because it helped to get the people who had the required knowledge on issues to do with computer game strategy and how it had affected literacy  skills development.

Data collection methods

Both primary and secondary data was obtained. Primary data was got through a self-administered questionnaire and interview guides administered to the respondents following systematic and established academic procedures as proposed by (Nunnally & Berstein, 1994). Secondary data was obtained through the use of historical analysis of already existing literature on organizational conflicts.

Primary Data

Primary data was obtained from questionnaires and interviews conducted with the respondents. According to Sekaran (2003), secondary data is considerably cheaper and faster than doing original studies. It is very flexible and the best to use where a  network of data archives in which survey data files are collected and distributed is readily available.

Data Collection Methods

Both primary and secondary data which is both qualitative and quantitative will be obtained for the particular study.

Primary Data

Primary data was got through self-administered questionnaires and interview guides to respondents following systematic and established academic procedures as proposed by Sekaran(2003). There are several ways the researcher collected the primary data. This necessitated use of interview method, and through questionnaires.

Questionnaire Survey Method

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The researcher chose to use the questionnaire survey because it is practical, large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way. A questionnaire was used because it allows in-depth research, to gain firsthand information and more experience over a short period of time Sekaran (2003). A questionnaire was also used because it increases the degree of reliability due to the many items in it and it as well enhances the chances of getting valid data (Amin, 2005). The close ended questionnaire captured questions on the independent and dependent variable, the researcher also ensured that all categories of respondents receive questionnaire in time.

Interview Method

An interview is a conversation between two or more people where questions are asked by the interviewer to elicit facts or statements from the interviewee. Interviews are a standard part of journalism and media reporting, but are also employed in many other situations, including qualitative research. Interviews were person to person verbal communication in which one person or a group of people were interviewed at a time. Interviews were used because they had the advantage of ensuring probing for more information, clarification and capturing facial expression of the interviewees (Amin, 2005). In addition interviews also gave an opportunity to the researcher to revisit some of the issues that had been an over-sight in other instruments and yet they are deemed vital for the study. The interviews captured questions on the independent and dependent variable and in the course interviewing probing was applied so as to elicit a good response rate.

Secondary Data

In the secondary analysis of qualitative data, good documentation cannot be underestimated as it provides necessary background and much needed context both of which make re-use a more worthwhile and systematic endeavor. Secondary data was obtained through the use of published and unpublished documents. Various publications, past dissertation and reports, magazines and newspapers reports, historical documents and other sources of published information will be reviewed by the researcher. According to Amin (2005) secondary data can be helpful in the research design of subsequent primary research and can provide a baseline with which the collected primary data results can be compared to other methods.

Documentary Review

Various publications were reviewed which included historical documents and other sources of published information were also reviewed by the researcher. According to Amin (2005) documents this could be helpful in the research design of subsequent primary research and could provide a baseline with which the collected primary data results can be compared to other methods.

Data Collection Instruments.

The study used the questionnaire, interview guide and documentary review checklist as the key data collection instruments and these are explained below:

Questionnaire

A questionnaire was used because it allowed in-depth research, to gain firsthand information and more experience over a short period of time (Kathuri, & Pal 1993). A questionnaire was used because it increases the degree of reliability due to the many items in it and it as well enhances the chances of getting valid data, (Amin, 2005). The questionnaire consisted of both likert scale and open-ended questions. The questionnaire were self-administered and in this case they were given to the teachers. Quantitative data was obtained by closed-ended questions while qualitative data was obtained by open-ended questions.  The questionnaire were administered because the number of respondents is large hence the questionnaires became the most convenient and cheapest means of collecting data in this case.

Interview Guide

The interview guide was used to collect the data. Interviews were person to person verbal communication in which one person or a group of people will be interviewed at a time. Interviews were used because they have the advantage of ensuring probing for more information, clarification and capturing facial expression of the interviewees (Amin, 2005). In addition they also gave give an opportunity to the researcher to revisit some of the issues that had been an over-sight in other instruments and yet they are deemed vital for the study.  The reason for using this method,  is to collect information that cannot be directly be observed or difficult to put down in writing and to capture meanings beyond words. Interviews were personal interviews and were conducted with senior administrative staff, academic staff and children.

Documentary Review Checklist

Documentary research is the use of outside sources, documents, to support the viewpoint or argument of an academic work. The process of documentary research often involves some or all of conceptualizing, using and assessing documents. Examples of documents include newspapers, visual and pictorial sources in paper, electronic, or other `hard copy’ form. The analysis of the documents in documentary research would be either quantitative or qualitative analysis (or both). The documentary review list were used for purposes of reviewing documentary data. Documentary data was obtained through the use of published and unpublished documents. Various publications, magazines and newspapers reports, historical documents and other sources of publish information were reviewed by the researcher.

Quality control of data collection

Data quality control techniques ensured that data collected is valid and reliable. To ensure validity, the instruments were first tested and after the results were analyzed.

Validity and Reliability

Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure (Creswell, 2003). Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent (Creswell, 2003).  To establish validity qualitatively , the instruments will be given to two experts (supervisors) to evaluate the relevance of each item in the instrument to the objectives and rate each item on the scale of very relevant (4), quite relevant (3), somehow relevant (2), and not relevant (1). The purpose of qualitative research is to describe or understand the phenomena of interest from the participant’s eyes, therefore the researcher allowed the participants to legitimately judge the credibility of the results. The researcher documented the procedures for checking and rechecking the data throughout the study. The researcher took a “devil’s advocate” role with respect to the results, and this process was documented. The researcher also actively searched for and describe the negative instances that contradict prior observations. And, after the study, the researcher will conduct a data audit that examines the data collection and analysis procedures and makes judgments about the potential for bias or distortion. Since the idea of dependability, on the other hand, emphasizes the need for the researcher to account for the ever-changing context within which research occurs, the researcher described the changes that occur in the setting and how these changes affect the way the researcher approached the study. And lastly, a pretest of the instrument in a time lapse of 4 weeks was carried out to establish consistence in responses. According to Amin (2005), test-retest reliability can be used to measure the extent to which the instrument can produce consistent scores when the same group of individuals is repeatedly measured under same conditions. The results from the pretest were used to modify the items in the instruments.

For quantitative data, the researcher endeavored to attain validity of coefficients of at least 0.70 or 70%. Creswell (2003) argues that items with validity coefficients to at least 0.70 are accepted as valid and reliable in research.  Validity was determined by using Content Validity Index (C.V.I).C.V.I = items rated 3 or 4 by both judges divided by the total number of items in the questionnaire. After calculating the C.V.I, if the results are above 0.7, the instrument were regarded valid/satisfactory.

Results of the Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Coefficient for Likert-Type Scale test

Source: Primary data (2013)

The results of the Cronbach alpha reliability test are indicated above, the results were reliable given the fact that they will be above 0.7. . Reading has a validity result of 0.777, Letter formation has a validity result of 0.803 and Ordering of letters has a validity result of 0.783

Data Analysis Techniques

Data was analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively.

Quantitative Data Analysis

Data was  sorted using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) method. The researcher will employ Univariate analysis techniques in analyzing his data. Univariate analysis is the simplest form of quantitative (statistical) analysis. The analysis is carried out with the description of a single variable in terms of the applicable unit of analysis. Univariate analysis is commonly used in the first, descriptive stages of research, before being supplemented by more advanced, inferential bivariate or multivariate analysis. In addition to frequency distribution, univariate analysis commonly involves reporting measures of central tendency (location). In summary the researcher apply the Pearson correlation coefficient test (to test the degree of relationship between the study variables. The researcher also analyzed the raw data using regression analysis. The background variables was analyzed using both the two-way and one way analysis of variance.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data was analyzed using both thematic analysis and content analysis. Content analysis involved coding the data and later processing it. This is because the two approaches complement each other since the theme emerges from the researcher and the description summaries from the responses.

Measurement of Variables

The independent variable (political decentralisation) and the dependent variable (education service delivery) were measured on a five point Likert type scale (1- strongly disagree, 2-Disagree, 3-Not sure, 4- Agree and 5-Strongly agree. The choice of this measurement is that each point on the scale carries a numerical score which is used to measure the respondents’ attitude and it is the most frequently used summated scale in the study of social attitude. According to Mugenda (1999) and Amin (2005), the Likert scale is able to measure perception, attitudes, values and behaviours of individuals towards a given phenomenon.

Ethical Considerations

There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. First, norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid error. Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. In order to promote ethics in the proposed study, respondent’s names were withheld to ensure anonymity and confidentiality in terms of any future prospects. In order to avoid bias, the researcher will interview the respondents one after the other and ensured that she informs them about the nature and extent of her study and on the other hand she gave them reasons as to why is interviewing them.

Limitations of the Study

The researcher was studying only two cases; therefore the results cannot be generalized to other cases. However, the researcher may encounter some limitations during the study especially when it comes to interviewing some respondents. Some may not be willing to give information unless paid and at some instances, the researcher have to wait till late in the evening when the respondents are through with their work so as to interview them. For the key informants, given their busy schedules, some interviews may be rescheduled to fit their timetables, but these also sometimes fail. The research took take slightly long to conduct particular interviews which delayed the study.

In some instances, respondents may want pay prior to providing information. The researcher managed these problems by making a through sensitization of respondents on the importance and significance of the study. The Kyambogo University introductory letter also helped to allay any fears and doubts among some respondents. Efforts were made to maintain confidentiality of the responses. The absenteeism of the senior lecturers were  tackled by frequent visits to the university.

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